Public Book Policies in the Arab world

Introduction

The Arab publishing industry is an emerging industry. The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg, arrived in the Arab world, particularly in the Levant and Egypt, nearly four centuries after its appearance in Europe. This time gap caused the Arab publishing industry to be oscillating up and down till this day. It’s not a robust industry and still lacks many regulations that guide the people involved: authors, printers, and distributors, and consequently help publishers better meet the needs of readers. When compared with more advanced countries, the Arab publishing industry seems to lack knowledge and data that could benefit all stakeholders. Globally, it also lacks access to databases and information about the number of book publishers, authors, printers, illustrators, designers, and other actors in the industry.

Publishing policies are crucial for the development of the book industry and the dissemination of knowledge in the Arab world. Publishing serves as the main means for conveying ideas and exchanging information among different cultures and societies, whether through printed or electronic books. However, publishing industry in the Arab world faces significant challenges, including government laws and regulations, freedom of expression and censorship, as well as, lack of governmental subsidies, and low engagement with digital transformations.

Publishing industry faces restrictive laws, insufficient legal regulations, and ongoing violations of intellectual property rights, particularly those of authors, as well as the practices imposed on the book production tools and the books themselves.

In the Arab world, we lack a proper publishing context, which is essential for the building of a strong publishing industry and the production of knowledge, which is a vital industry for human progress.

Due to the economic and political conditions suffered by many Arab countries, which were once hubs for the book production, the publishing industry has significantly declined over the past decade.

Conflicts, wars, and political and economic instability have significantly affected the publishing industry in various ways. Notable impacts include weak purchasing power, fluctuating exchange rates, stagnant markets, and difficulties of shipping, all of which have affected the book fairs. Additionally, the basic factors that contributed to the decline of the publishing industry, such as the COVID-19 pandemic in recent years.

At the same time, some Arab countries have made progress by improving the production, promotion, and translation conditions through government subsidization for the publishing industry.

This study aims to shed light on the key publishing policies in the Arab countries and review the factors influencing this vital sector from legal, economic, and cultural perspectives. Additionally, it examines the roles of governmental and non-governmental actors in supporting publishers and overcoming the obstacles that hinder the development of the publishing industry.

Research Methodology

Mapping book-related public policies across different regions of the world, including Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa (Madagascar), and the Arab world, serves as a unique tool for collecting and analyzing information on book and reading support systems in thirty-two countries. This map facilitates a comparative study of the public policies in these regions, emphasizing their significance in preserving bibliographic and cultural diversity. It also offers a comprehensive and accurate overview of the measures applicable in each country, which would help highlight both commonalities and differences among the countries studied. Ultimately, this map aims to foster dialogue among publishers and official entities to strengthen and enhance public book policies.

Conducting this study has been a significant challenge, particularly when it comes to collecting accurate data.

1. Phase One – Data Collection:

The project commenced in 2017 with the development of a form aimed at gathering information about book-related public policies in the Arab world. This form was translated into Arabic using Google Forms and shared with around 200 publishers in the Arab region, as well as with official institutions involved in book and publishing industry.

• Challenge: the project encountered low response from publishers and official institutions, which negatively affected the quality and quantity of the data collected.

2. The Second Phase – In-person Interviews:

In order to enhance response rates, the research team carried out in-person interviews with several publishers. This enabled us to gather data, especially from countries with low response rates. We also utilized online open sources to fill any information gaps.

• The result: The data obtained was rather acceptable; however, there is notable lack of information regarding the Arabian Gulf region.

3. Phase Three – Enhancing Data Collection:

In 2022, in-person interviews were conducted with publishers from the Gulf region during the Abu Dhabi Book Fair, with a view to collecting the missing data. They involved open-ended questions that allowed the publishers to share their perspectives on the publishing landscape in their countries.

4. Final Attempt to Collect Data: 

After gathering the initial information, a representative from each Arab country was assigned to review the Form and update any missing data. The goal was to obtain information on eighteen Arab countries; however, the survey could cover only eleven countries, which was due to various reasons.

The result: The collected responses were not up to the required standards, necessitating the use of Internet open sources to complete the remaining data.

The Challenges Encountered by the team:

1.  Lack of legal knowledge: publishing professionals lacked adequate legal knowledge and showed little interest in learning about the relevant laws.
2. Inconsistency between the laws and the practices: the team observed discrepancies between the laws and their application in the publishing sector.
3. Lack of official information: there were no platforms or websites providing publishers with updated information about the relevant applicable laws.
4. Lack of accurate statistics: most Arab countries lack accurate statistics on the publishing sector, making most opinions and information subjective and not based on accurate data.

Conclusion: The team’s experiences in data collection reveal that greater efforts are needed to develop book-related public policies in the Arab world. Additionally, there are significant challenges regarding legal awareness, access to information, and effective enforcement of the laws.

Research Summary

This study explores the publishing policies in the Arab world, involving publishing specialists from eleven Arab countries. It focuses on several key themes, including: freedom of expression, the publishing industry, book-related public policies, various forms of censorship, the book-related socioeconomic environment, intellectual property rights and other relevant issues.

The Research Key Points

• Copyright and intellectual property: copyright and intellectual property laws play a crucial role in the publishing industry. These laws protect the rights to reproduce, translate, and distribute books. International conventions, such as the Berne Convention and the Paris Convention, guarantee these rights globally, but their implementation differs across Arab countries.
• Translators’ rights: translators play a crucial role in knowledge transfer. While some Arab countries have legal provisions to protect their rights, this protection varies across regions. It is essential for translators to receive fair financial and moral entitlements.
• Piracy in publishing in the Arab world: literary piracy is a significant challenge for publishing industry in Arab countries. Illegal book publishing reduces the profits of authors and publishers, which weakens literary and cultural production.
• Codes of conduct (CODs) and ethics charters: some countries have adopted CODs to regulate the relationships between cultural producers and authors, as well as to ensure the enforcement of copyright laws. However, these CODs are not widely spread in the Arab world.
• Publication censorship: censorship occurs through various methods such as administrative pre-censorship, judicial post-publication censorship, or self-censorship by authors. The aim is usually to control the content published, which negatively affects freedom of expression and publication.
• Public book policies: public book policies refer to the set of measures and laws put in place by governments to regulate the book and publishing sector. These policies include subsidizing local production, protection of intellectual property, and market regulation to ensure fair competition.
• Official cultural policies: these policies are developed through collaboration among governments, professional associations, and intellectuals, to promote cultural production and the distribution of books, as well as to create programs that support and encourage reading and publishing.
• Translation in public book policies: translation plays a crucial role in public book policies; it facilitates the exchange of cultures and knowledge among nations. Several Arab countries emphasize the importance of translation as a way to broaden cultural perspectives.
• Taxation measures and publishing market regulations: taxation measures and publishing regulations differ among countries. They include the customs duties levied, the taxes imposed on book sales or e-publishing services, and the regulation of copyright and intellectual property rights.

Main Recommendations

1. Updating publishing laws: publishing laws need to be updated to align with modern technological advancements and address current market requirements, including e-publishing laws.
2. Supporting freedom of expression: freedom of expression in Arab countries must be strengthened by reducing the restrictions on the content published, whether printed and electronic.
3. Enhance government subsidization: it is advisable to offer both financial and logistic support to small and independent publishers. This includes providing tax exemptions and concessional financing to foster greater innovation and cultural publishing.
4. Enhancing statistics and research: it is essential to provide regular statistics and detailed reports on the state of the publishing industry in the Arab world, to enable stakeholders to make informed strategic decisions.
5. Enhancing community involvement: publishers, authors, and stakeholders should be involved in developing public policies to ensure fair representation of all parties.
6. Encouraging reading: it is advisable to adopt policies that promote reading in society through awareness campaigns and initiatives that target various age groups, as well as support to public libraries.
7. Combating piracy of print and electronic books: we must implement intellectual property rights laws and raise awareness about their importance. Additionally, we should work on establishing an alliance of stakeholders in the publishing industry, which includes government and independent publishers, public libraries and bookstores, in order to reduce the piracy phenomena.
8. Enforcing competition and antitrust laws: to support the growth of the publishing sector, it is essential to implement the laws that protect publishers from monopolistic practices and promote fair competition within the market.

Freedom of Expression and Free Access to Information (chapter 1)

Freedom of expression and freedom of publication are closely related; because freedom of publication is a key aspect of freedom of expression. If freedom of expression means the ability of an individual or society to freely express their opinions and ideas without fear of punishment or repression, then freedom of publication represents the means by which these opinions and ideas are communicated to a broader audience through various platforms such as media, books, the Internet, etc.

Publishing serves as a means to document the ideas and experiences and share them permanently with the society. This process contributes to cultural enlightenment and societal development. By having the freedom to publish, authors, thinkers, and scholars can reach a wide audience, which enables them to influence readers and public debates.

The Report on the State of Freedom of Expression around the World 2024, published by the Article 19 group, reveals that ten Arab countries are in crisis regarding freedom of expression. The Report categorizes the world’s 161 countries into five groups: open, least restrictive, restrictive, highly restrictive, and crisis.

None of the Arab countries rank first or second. Ten Arab countries are in a state of crisis, and five Arab countries are among the ten worst countries in the world regarding freedom of expression.

The Report classifies Tunisia, Lebanon, and Morocco as having restricted freedom of expression. Countries such as Kuwait, Iraq, Libya, Jordan, and Palestine are classified as having severe restrictions. Finally, Algeria, Yemen, Oman, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Syria are classified as being in a state of crisis.

The Report reveals that freedom of expression in the Arab world encounters various challenges. While many of the countries discussed do not experience economic, social, or political instability, they still experience a decline in freedom of expression. In the countries affected by internal and external conflicts, wars, economic collapse, and social and political crises—such as Syria and Yemen—freedom of expression is nearly nonexistent.

Freedom of expression and publication are essential foundations for the building of democratic and developing societies. Without this right, individuals cannot get engaged in public debates or freely share their aspirations and ideas. Therefore, it is crucial to promote and protect freedom of expression and publication, as this not only ensures intellectual diversity, but encourages innovation and progress across all fields, as well.

Between Administrative Pre-Censorship and Judicial Post-publication Censorship

Publication censorship refers to the process of imposing restrictions or controls on the content of information published or distributed through various media, including books, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and any other media. Censorship can take many forms and varies in severity from country to country, influenced by political, social, and religious factors.

In Arab countries, publication censorship can be categorized into two types. The first is administrative pre-censorship, which is conducted by government bodies and institutions associated with the Ministry of Culture (MoC) or the Ministry of Information (MoI). This type of censorship is found in countries like Syria, Sudan, Kuwait, Oman, and Egypt. The second type is judicial censorship, which occurs after the publication of a book; it is common in countries such as Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, and Jordan.

Administrative pre-censorship refers to the process of reviewing or examining certain materials before being published or distributed to the public. The goal is to ensure that these materials comply with the laws and policies, which are set as government or institutional standards. This type of censorship is often enforced by the relevant government or administrative bodies and applies to various media means, including books, films, cultural materials, and the Internet. It aims to control what is published and distributed. Through this censorship, publishers are requested to obtain prior approvals before printing and distributing their works.

In Syria, for instance, Decision No. 84, issued by the MoI in 2019, states that publishers have to obtain approval from the MoI before publishing or republishing any manuscript, deposit a legal copy at the National Library, and obtain a circulation permit from the Ministry. Or, they can seek permission from the Syrian General Organization of Books (SGOB). In such case, the publisher or writer must submit three copies of their manuscript along with a digital copy on a CD. The Organization will, then, send the manuscripts to three selected reviewers, and the publication will be permitted if at least two of them approve the content. If the manuscript is not approved, the Organization is not obliged to provide any reasons for the rejection of publication.

The same procedure is applied in the Sultanate of Oman, where Press and Publications Law No. 49 states that publishers have to obtain prior approval from the MoI before printing any materials.

Administrative pre-censorship is a mechanism used to control the publication or distribution of media and cultural materials within society. While it is intended to safeguard national security and uphold social values, as supposed by the text, this practice has sparked significant controversy due to its adverse effects on freedom of expression and publication. By restricting access to a diverse range of information, it limits intellectual and creative pluralism.

The second type of censorship is known as judicial post-publication censorship. This occurs after media, literary, or artistic content has been published or distributed to the public. In this case, judicial intervention is used to review or to hold accountable the publisher, author, or entity responsible for the content if it is determined to violate laws or regulations.

Judicial post-publication censorship is typically initiated by a complaint filed by individuals or institutions against any book or publication. This can result in the withdrawal of publications from circulation, their prohibition, or even their confiscation. This type of censorship is practiced in countries like Lebanon, Morocco, and Tunisia, where publishers do not require prior approval or publishing permit. Instead, they need to complete certain routine procedures, such as obtaining a national deposit number (NDN) before publication or depositing one or more copies of the publication with a government body affiliated with the MoC, either before or after distribution.

However, the publishing industry in these countries is not exempted from the risk of the books being banned or withdrawn from the market after the distribution through fairs and bookstores. Judicial post-publication censorship offers a balance between upholding the freedom of publication and ensuring compliance with the law and the protection of rights. However, excessive reliance on this form of censorship can limit freedom of expression and may lead to self-censorship.

In general, all Arab countries require publishers to deposit copies of their publications and books with a government agency associated with the MoC, such as the National Library in Jordan, Tunisia, and Morocco; the MoI in Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, and Syria; the National Library and Archives (NLA) in Egypt; and the Authority for Literal and Artistic Works in Sudan.

Table 1 – Types of censorship for traditional and electronic publications in the Arab region

Censorship in Arab Countries: Ambiguous Standards

Censorship on the publishing industry is very common in many Arab countries. Governments monitor the media and impose restrictions on the publishing of books and articles that criticize the ruling regimes or contradict religious and social traditions.

Based on the respondents’ answers, there are no clear standards provided by government agencies and institutions for publishers regarding what is considered prohibited or forbidden in publishing. Most legal provisions related to publishing and media lack precise definitions; instead, they consist of vague and unclear texts that do not adequately explain the basis and criteria used for the decisions banning or prohibiting content.

Most Arab countries have laws to regulate publishing, including both the book publishing and media sectors. However, many of these laws criminalize publishing activities that involve pornographic content, promote racial or gender discrimination, call for civil violence, or violate the constitution.

The same situation is occurring in Kuwait, Oman, Sudan, Morocco, and Tunisia, with the almost sole exception of Lebanon, in which there is no clear legal text criminalizing such practices in the publishing and media sectors.

Some survey responses indicated to the lack of clear standards regarding what is prohibited or forbidden from publication. This leads to arbitrary and capricious censorship on titles and content, determined solely at the discretion of bureaucrats in official institutions. These practices give rise to self-censorship, where individuals or organizations—such as writers, journalists, publishers, or artists—restrict, edit, or delete certain content before it is published or shared with the public. This occurs without direct intervention from government authorities or official regulatory bodies. Such decisions to self-censor stem from fear of potential repercussions, including legal sanctions, social criticism, or economic or security threats. Both publishers and authors engage in self-censorship, which is one of the most dangerous forms of censorship. It significantly limits and distorts freedoms, research, as well as intellectual and literary creativity.

In Morocco, for example, there is no administrative pre-censorship or designated government authority for book censorship. However, this doesn’t mean that books are safe from being withdrawn or confiscated for various unreasonable reasons, such as “making corrections”. Many of these books are withdrawn from circulation and never returned, as indicated in the responses of survey respondents.

There are a lot of examples of books and publications that have been banned from book fairs in the Arab world. Typically, these bans apply to the books that cross the “red tapes” from the viewpoint of fair administrations. These bans often pertain to religious, political, or social issues. As a result, exhibition administrations sift and filter the books, and appoint themselves as guardians, or trustees, who permit their minor children to do something and prevent them from doing something else.

In Jordan, based on interviews conducted by the researcher with publishers in the Kingdom, books imported from abroad that discuss any of the following three topics—sex, religion, or politics, as well as, any political content that may offend the ruling family, politically active figures, or religious texts addressing sects, denominations, or religions, must be destroyed or confiscated after a thorough investigation, review, and approval process. While importers have the option to appeal these decisions in court, such appeals are rare. As for the books printed inside the Kingdom; if someone files a complaint about a book or raises concerns about specific topics after being published and marketed, the Publications Department will promptly review the matter. A review committee will be formed to assess the complaint. Even if the book contains content that violates the Constitution or the Department’s regulations, a legal action will be initiated on the grounds of “violating” the applicable laws. The Department typically wins the case, resulting in the book being withdrawn from the market. Furthermore, the author may face prosecution if the complaint is brought forth by an individual or an institution—either governmental or private—aside from the Publications Department and the National Library.

At the 2019 Damascus International Book Fair in Syria, the Fair’s director made a special statement to the media. He said, “This year, we began with the concept that every visitor to the Fair is a partner in it. The role of the reader is to report to the management if he notices any negative content in the books on display, so that those books can be withdrawn and banned from circulation.” As a result, several books were withdrawn from the Book Fair, even though they had been approved for publication and distribution by the relevant official bodies. However, this approval did not protect books from being confiscated or withdrawn from the market without any explanation. Sometimes, the censorship and its apparatuses use vague and ambiguous phrases to justify their actions, such as “violating public decency” or “threatening the spirit of the nation,” among others.

The heavy impact of censorship on the publishing industry, media, and freedom of expression causes a significant decline in the sector, both commercially and in terms of the losses incurred by publishers when their books are withdrawn and banned. As a result, authors resort to publishing their works outside their country of residence, hoping to enjoy greater freedom. Consequently, publishers deteriorate because they are forced to focus on titles that please the authorities and annoy no censors.

Electronic Publishing: No Escape from Official Censorship

Electronic publishing enjoys greater freedom and less censorship in some Arab countries, so far. For instance, while Kuwait, Jordan, and Oman impose some restrictions on traditional publishing, these restrictions are not extended to electronic publishing.

The situation of electronic publishing is similar to that of traditional publishing in some other countries, including Syria, Egypt, and Sudan, where administrative pre-censorship is there for both types of publishing. However, Morocco is an exception; it abolishes administrative pre-censorship on traditional publishing and applies it to electronic publishing.

Several Arab governments have tried to control and regulate the electronic publishing sector. They have introduced articles concerning electronic publishing, and censorship standards, prohibitions, restrictions, and penalties thereof within the recently enacted cybercrime legislation in Syria, Egypt, and Tunisia.

In Syria, Cybercrime Law No. 20 of 2022 was enacted, amending the previous Law No. 17 of 2012, (Electronic Communications Regulation and Anti-Cybercrime Law). This new law contains ambiguous definitions of cybercrimes and employs imprecise terms that can be easily interpreted in different ways, such as defamation, violations of public morals and ethics, and criticism of authorities.

It is worth mentioning that though many constitutional provisions guarantee freedom of expression as a constitutionally protected right, the practice in Arab countries often lacks a legal basis. In some cases, laws are not enacted because they violate the constitution. Instead, ruling authorities resort to security services of the Ministry of Interior to ban books and publications under the pretext that they threaten the country’s public security.

A prominent example of this is Lebanon, where the General Security issues periodically lists of the books whose circulation by bookshops and public libraries in the country is banned. Though such practice falls outside the legal and constitutional mandate of security apparatuses, they interfere in the publishing sector under the pretext of maintaining security. This situation is also evident in Egypt, Syria, and many other Arab countries. As a result, government authorities are overlapped, the competent agencies remain unknown, publishing spaces are reduced, both traditionally and electronically, all that in addition to the harm inflicted on the publishing sector, as a whole.

Laws to Protect the Authorities, Not Publication

In the Arab world, various laws and regulations outline the boundaries of freedoms of publishing and expression, while these laws are almost empty of any provisions that combat monopoly and protect competition in the publishing sector. As a result, small and independent publishers often find themselves excluded from fair competition in the publishing sector and the media in general.

When antitrust and protection of commercial competition laws exist, they tend to be general and not specifically tailored to books, publishing, and the media. For instance, in Egypt and Tunisia, there is a public institution called the Competition and Antitrust Authority; however, the laws that govern this authority do not explicitly address the book or media industries. As a result, no recourse has been made to this authority in any cases regarding publishing and information sector. Additionally, it is difficult to apply these laws to this sector, due to the high cost of procedures. Anti-competitive practices in the book sector are not subject to prosecution and therefore are not punishable.

Whether traditional or electronic, the publishing sector in the Arab world suffers from big challenges; strict censorship on publishing and media sectors might be the only common factor among the Arab countries, despite their variant economic, political, and social conditions. Therefore, we find that the majority of Arab countries rank very low on the freedom of expression indicators in the world. This arises from the desire to control these sectors, and subjecting to the vague and unreasonable standards of the Arab states. Consequently, the publishing industry encounters obstacles at every level—not only in terms of freedom of expression, which is a fundamental pillar for a commercially, socially, and culturally successful publishing industry.

Conclusion of chapter 1

• The information available on freedom of expression and publication in Arab countries shows that censorship and government control dominate the publishing landscape. While there are exceptions, such as in Lebanon and Tunisia, the publishing sector is still subject to various forms of official censorship. This creates significant obstacles and challenges that hinder the stability of the publishing industry across Arab countries as a whole.
• Although there are laws in place that regulate the publishing content, prohibiting and monitoring certain materials and allowing others, the real practice is far from the theoretical framework enshrined in the laws. There are numerous examples from various Arab countries surveyed, showing the banning and confiscation of books that had previously been permitted, but the censor prevented them from being available to readers. This practice leads to the worst kind of censorship, which is self-censorship as practiced by both the publisher and the writer on creative and intellectual products.
• The laws governing publishing are outdated and require updating and modernizing. Some of these laws are over eighty years old, which makes it unreasonable to continue applying them, especially since they do not respond to modern technologies and the changes experienced by the publishing industry. Instead of regulating and facilitating the publishing sector, these outdated laws obstruct and hinder the industry’s progress as a whole.
• Freeing the publishing industry from administrative pre-censorship is a top priority for publishers, and it is a priority to support the intellectual, creative, and knowledge-based movements in Arab countries. Additionally, there is need to develop executive decisions that streamline the process of obtaining publishing approvals.
• The electronic publishing sector is the newest area within the publishing industry; consequently, it necessitates a strategy and work to involve publishers in the formulation of the publishing-related laws and decisions.
• The publishing sector requires laws that protect small publishers from monopolies and ensure they have opportunities for fair competition, instead of leaving the market, prices, and content under the control of few big publishers. Legislative and executive powers must intervene to ensure this.

Appendix 1 – Freedom of Expression and Publication in Arab Countries

Survey results per country:

The Survey included publishers and stakeholders from ten Arab countries: Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, Sudan, Yemen, and Palestine.

The participants were asked about the process of obtaining publishing permits in their countries, for both traditional and e-books. They were also asked about the official institutions responsible for the publishing industry, censorship and the standards thereof, the laws regulating the publishing process, and the laws of antitrust and free competition in the publishing sector. Hereunder are the results by country.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The National Library of the Jordanian MoC, oversees and regulates publishing activities in the Kingdom. The Jordanian government neither requires prior permit from publishers, nor applies administrative pre-censorship, but asks publishers to deposit hard copies of their print books at the National Library.

Deposit and permit terms apply to paper books only; e-book publishers are not required to deposit a copy at the National Library in Amman.

The Jordanian government regulates publication content through the Publications Law, as published in the Official Gazette in 1990. This law prohibits the publication of any material that contains pornographic elements or incites violence or racial or gender discrimination. The same regulations apply to electronic publishing; the Cybercrime Law also prohibits and controls the dissemination of pornographic content as well as any content that promotes racial or gender discrimination.

In addition to the topics mentioned above, publishing any political content that may speak ill of the ruling family or any notable political figure, or any religious content that speaks ill of sects, denominations, or religions, whose rights are protected by the constitution, is prohibited. If a material with such a content is published abroad, it will be destroyed or confiscated following an investigation, review, and endorsement process (although this decision can be appealed in court, such appeals are rare). If it is printed inside the Kingdom and any complaints or feedback are made against it after publication and marketing, the Publications Department will conduct an immediate review. A review committee will be formed to assess the situation. If the material is found to violate the constitution or the Department’s regulations, the case will be referred to the court for violating publishing laws. The Department often wins such cases, and the material is withdrawn from the market. Additionally, if the complaint is filed by an individual or a government or private institution (other than the Publications Department and the National Library), the author may also be sued.

The Jordanian government has not enacted any laws to prevent monopolies and ensure fair competition within the book publishing sector.

Republic of Sudan

The Literary and Artistic Works Council is the official body responsible for overseeing and censoring publishing activities in Sudan. This Council reports to the MoC, and its chairman is appointed by Minister of Culture.

Publishers are requested to obtain prior permits from the Council before they can publish printed works. The Sudanese government, thus, uses administrative pre-censorship to regulate the publishing sector. To seek approval, publishers are required to submit three copies of the book proposed to the Council with a view to being assigned to one of its reading committees.

In addition to administrative pre-censorship, The Literary and Artistic Works Council bans many books even if they have been published and distributed in the market, as outlined by the Literary and Artistic Works Act of 2001.

The above does not apply to e-book publishing in Sudan, as there are currently no laws regulating the e-publishing sector, and neither pre-publication nor post-publication approvals or permits are required.

Regarding the laws related to books and the publishing sector, which aim to prevent monopolies and ensure normal commercial competition, the Sudanese government has not enacted any legislation in this area.

Republic of Yemen

The General Authority for Books (GAB) in Yemen censors and regulates the publishing sector. It reports to the Yemeni MoC, and its members are appointed by Minister of Culture.

The GAB in Yemen does not adopt the administrative pre-censorship model. Publishers do not need a permit or approval from the Authority to publish their works. Instead, they are required to obtain an NDN from the Authority to publish and distribute books in markets and bookshops. If a publication is banned, the Yemeni MoC makes a decision to that end.

The publishing sector is governed by the Press and Publications Law of 2000, along with its executive regulations. The Law sets clear guidelines for content, prohibiting any material with pornographic elements, or racial or gender discrimination, or that offends public decency, incites sectarian or religious tensions, or threatens public security and the state’s interests. Consequently, the banning criteria remain loose and subject to subjective and arbitrary interpretation.

At the same time, the Law does not regulate the electronic publishing sector, and there is no regulatory authority overseeing electronic publishing, which does not necessitate any permits or NDNs from the GAB.

The same is true for the laws that prevent monopolies and ensure competition in the publishing sector; there is no specific legal reference for books and publishing sector.

Kingdom of Morocco

In the Kingdom of Morocco, there is no explicit censorship on publications. The National Library in Rabat oversees the regulation of publishing, but does not impose any administrative pre-censorship. Publishers are not required to obtain approval before releasing a book; they only need to provide the NDN to publish any book in Morocco.

The National Office of Printing, Publishing, and Distribution previously required an abstract with numbered pages when applying for legal NDNs and an ISBN. This requirement is supposed to facilitate the creation of annual publication index, but could be perceived as a form of censorship. However, there is no evidence of any explicit rejections based on content.

E-books also require a book NDN to be published through stores and online platforms.

Law No. 88-13 regulates publishing-related issues. While the Law primarily focuses on the press more than books, it upholds the principle of freedom of expression. However, it also prohibits any content that incites hatred, terrorism, war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, torture, abuse of individuals based on their religion, gender, or color, as well as abuse of women, children, and persons with disabilities.

Morocco has no specific laws for books and publishing regarding free competition and antitrust.

State of Kuwait

The Kuwaiti MoI is responsible for censoring and regulating the publishing sector in Kuwait. In 2006, the approach to censorship in Kuwait transitioned from administrative pre-censorship to judicial post-publication censorship, in accordance with the Press and Publications Law No. 3. This law grants the MoI the authority to ban or confiscate books after being published, based on its discretion and decision.

The Law requires that two copies of every book must be deposited: one with the MoI and the other with the National Library of Kuwait (NLK). The law prohibits several topics, including but not limited to: “it is strictly prohibited to touch on almighty Allah, the Holy Quran, the prophets, the Righteous Companions, Prophet’s Wives, or Prophet’s Kinsfolk by way of insinuation, defamation, sarcasm, contempt or by any other manner of expression”.  Also, “It is strictly prohibited to deal with the personality of the Amir of Kuwait in any critical behavior and no statement should be attributed to him unless a special permission from the Amiri Diwan is issued in this respect.” It also prohibits “any degradation or contempt to the constitution of the State,” “any humiliation to the judiciary stall, public prosecutors,” and “any violation to public morals or any investigation to violate the public order or contravention to the laws or committing crimes even if it does not take place.”

Individuals who breach the regulations mentioned above may face various penalties, up to the judge’s discretion, such as the closure of the publishing house, confiscation of the book, financial fines, imprisonment, and detention.

The Law does not apply to e-book publishing, as there is currently no legal reference or legal text regulating the work of e-publishing of books.

Kuwait lacks laws that protect the publishing sector from monopolies and ensure freedom of commercial competition.

Sultanate of Oman

The Omani government maintains administrative pre-censorship over the publishing sector through the MoI, which is the executive body that enforces the Press and Publications Law, issued by the Sultani Decree No. 49/84, as well as the Private Radio and Television Establishments Law, issued by the Sultani Decree No. 95-2004, along with their respective executive regulations.

Article 12 of the Press and Publications Law requires that before printing any printed material, the printer must obtain a prior permit from the MoI.

The law governs the content of publications and prohibits topics such as pornography, indecency, and insulting the Divine Essence and religious and political authorities in the Sultanate. It also bans any content that incites violence, hatred, or discrimination based on race or gender. Violators of the Law face severe penalties, including imprisonment for up to ten years.

Provisions of the foregoing laws do not apply to electronic publishing of books, and the 2020 amendments did not cover e-books, but covered only electronic newspapers and electronic news agencies.

Although the Sultanate has a law that prohibits monopolies and ensures competition, this law is general in nature and not specifically tailored for the publishing sector. As a result, it is rarely applied to publishing issues, largely due to the high costs associated with legal proceedings.

Lebanese Republic

The Lebanese Republic does not censor the publishing industry. According to the Publications Law of 1962, every publisher, owner of a periodical or non-periodical publication, responsible manager, or owner of any tape production facility must deposit a copy of their publication or production with the National Archives Center of Lebanon. However, approval or authorization is not required prior to or after publishing a work. That said, copies of a book can be withdrawn if a complaint is filed against it.

Lebanese publishers do not obtain pre- or post-publication permits for the books they publish. Additionally, Lebanese authorities do not withdraw or confiscate a book unless a complaint is filed by an individual or institution regarding that specific book. Often, such complaints are initiated by religious or political authorities in Lebanon.

The foregoing decisions apply also to electronic publishing, as there is no specific law governing it.

Additionally, the survey indicates that there are no laws regulating the content published or prohibiting specific topics; no law in Lebanon outlines restrictions within the publishing sector.

There are no laws preventing monopolies and ensuring competition, not just in the publishing sector but in the commercial sector in general.

Note: The absence of laws and the failure to update and enforce the existing ones have turned Lebanon into a hub for free unrestricted publishing in Arab countries. However, the Lebanese General Security intervenes, outside the legal framework, to confiscate books and create blacklists of the books banned from being on the shelves of commercial bookstores.

Republic of Tunisia

Tunisian laws do not impose any form of administrative pre-censorship. Instead, it requests from publishers to declare the books they publish and deposit four copies of each book at the National Library, which is in charge of the administrative oversight of the publishing sector in Tunisia, within one month of its circulation in the market.

Decree No. 115 of 2011 guarantees freedom of expression in the publishing sector. The first article of the Decree states that “The right to freedom of expression is guaranteed and exercised in accordance with the stipulations of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, other related conventions ratified by the Republic of Tunisia… The right to freedom of expression includes the free circulation of ideas, opinions and information of all kinds, their publication, reception and exchange.”

The Decree prohibits any content that incites violence or encourages criminal offenses. It penalizes by imprisonment anyone who publishes a material that calls for hatred among different races, religions, or communities. This includes inciting discrimination through hostile means or violence, as well as spreading racial discrimination-based ideas.

The above provisions are applicable to the traditional publishing sector, whether in print or media.

The Decree, which is a good example of the publishing sector regulation in Arab countries, guarantees freedom of competition while aiming, at the same time, to limit monopoly. Regarding e-publishing, Decree No. 54 of 2022 includes provisions that prohibit assault on individuals and copyrights through social media and provide for financial penalties and freedom-restricting penalties.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt adopts a mixed system of administrative pre-censorship and judicial post-publication censorship. Publishers must submit a file of the book to be published to the NLA. This file should include the book’s cover, a summary thereof, and its table of content. These requirements have been introduced in the last five years and must be met before obtaining a publishing permit and an NDN for the book. Once the permit is granted, the MoC mandates the publisher to deposit five copies of the book at the NLA, as stipulated by the Deposit Law of 1955.

In Egypt, publication censorship is primarily carried out by two agencies: the General Administration of Publications of Ministry of Interior (an exceptional case in which Ministry of Interior interferes in the publishing sector), and the Central Administration for Publications Censorship of MoC.

Egyptian authorities continue to enforce the Publications Law No. 20 of 1936, which contains several controversial provisions, especially as it requires mandatory deposit of ten copies of the book to be published at the directorate or the governorate in which the book will be published. Additionally, it requires that the one who wants to start a business in book publishing and distribution must obtain a license from the Ministry of Interior. The Law also grants the Cabinet the authority to ban the circulation of any book published outside of Egypt if it is deemed to disturb public peace.

There are no laws regulating the publication of content, such as pornography, racial and gender discrimination, in the book sector. However, the National Media Authority’s law regulates the content of publications in the media sector.

In Egypt, there are no specific laws regarding monopoly and the freedom of competition in the book and publishing sector. There is a government authority called “Egyptian Competition Authority,” but its involvement in the publishing sector is very rare.

Syrian Arab Republic

The Censorship Directorate of the MoI serves as the main censorship authority within the Syrian government. To obtain a publication permit in Syria, one must obtain a permit from either the MoI or the SGOB.

The Syrian authorities implement the two forms of censorship: administrative pre-censorship and judicial post-publication censorship. This is outlined in Decision No. 84 of 2021. Articles 9 and 10 state that publishers must obtain approval from the MoI before publishing or republishing any manuscript, deposit a legal copy at the National Library and obtain a circulation permit from the Ministry.

To obtain a permit from the SGOB, an author can submit three copies of his/her manuscript along with one copy on a CD. These copies will be reviewed by three designated readers. If two of them approve the manuscript, it will be published. However, if the manuscript is not approved, the Organization will not provide any information regarding the reasons for rejection. This occurs in cases when the MoI or the SGOB do not give permission to publish the book.

The Syrian Penal Code includes publication-related articles that prohibit the dissemination of pornographic materials and those inciting racial or gender discrimination. For instance, Article 468 criminalizes the publication of obscene or indecent books and other materials.

The Media Law prohibits media outlets from publishing any content related to the armed forces unless it is an official statement or has already been approved for publication. Additionally, it bans the dissemination of information that harms “national unity,” “national security,” or “state symbols,” “incites sectarian feelings,” “insults religious beliefs,” or agitates others to perpetrate crimes, acts of violence, or terrorism.

The SGOB publishes e-books, which is an option for writers, not publishers.

Finally, concerning antitrust and competition laws, the Syrian government enacted the Competition Protection and Prevention of Monopoly Law No. 7 of 2008. This law serves as the cornerstone for regulating competition and preventing monopolies in Syria. It applies to all economic activities, including the book and media sectors. However, the Law is seldom resorted to in the book sector due to high costs and burdensome bureaucracy.

State of Palestine

In April 2024, the Palestinian government decided to dissolve the MoI, which means there is no government body in Palestine exercising censorship or regulating the publishing sector. Previously, the MoI was the agency responsible for all publishing industry-related permits and approvals and no new agency has been appointed to serve as the official authority for publishing.

Articles 7 and 37 of the 1995 Publications Law provide the legal framework for censorship standards and prohibitions in the publishing sector in Palestine. Article 7 specifies that publications must avoid releasing any content that contradicts the principles of freedom, national responsibility, human rights, and respect for the truth. It emphasizes that freedom of thought, opinion, expression, and access to information are rights for citizens, same as they are rights for the government.

Children’s and adolescents’ periodicals must not contain images, stories, or news that conflict with the Palestinian morals, values, and traditions.

Article 37 prohibits the publication of the following items:

• Any confidential information regarding the police and national security forces, including their weapons, equipment, locations, movements, or training.
• The articles and materials that express contempt for religions and sects, whose freedom is guaranteed by law.
• The articles that may harm national unity, incite crimes, sow hatred, create discord and agitate sectarianism among members of society.
• Proceedings of the secret sessions of the National Council and the Council of Ministers.
• The articles or news that aim to undermine confidence in the national currency.
• The articles or news that may offend individuals’ dignity, personal freedoms, or reputation, as well as the news, reports, messages, and images that violate the public morals and ethics.
• The advertisements for medicines, medical products, cigarettes, and the like, unless approved in advance by the Ministry of Health.

The publishing industry is subject to antitrust and competition laws that apply to all goods, including books. However, these laws are rarely resorted to in such cases for various reasons that we have not enough information about.

Public Book Policies in Arab Countries (chapter 2)

Public book policies are a set of measures and guidelines that governments and official bodies develop to regulate and promote the book and publishing industry, and support reading and literary culture. These policies aim to foster the production and distribution of books, encourage reading within society, protect the rights of authors, publishers, and translators, and ensure that books reach the public in an easy and fair manner.

The objectives of public book policies are to support the book industry and production, promote reading, and guarantee access to books by offering them at affordable prices or, in some cases, freely through government initiatives or public libraries.

A major challenge that faces Arab publishing is the failure to recognize publishing as an industry. There are laws that deal with the industry of tangible products, like food, clothing, tools, vehicles, and other tangible goods. Books are equally tangible, but they can be produced only by a publisher that receives, or plans to receive, a creative work from its author.

Regulating the book market is a major goal of public book policies, through which legal and regulatory frameworks are set out to facilitate the work of publishers, authors, and distributors in the book sector.

Laws and legislation are crucial components of public book policies; this includes the laws that protect intellectual property rights (author’s rights, translator’s rights, and publisher’s rights, as well as the laws that mandate the legal deposit of books at national libraries.

Tax regulations and financial support are also important factors in shaping book-related public policies. This includes areas such as vocational training, translation support, the organization of international festivals and book fairs, and subsidizing national and public libraries, and sometimes even private bookshops.

Official institutions of Arab governments, which were included in the survey, oversee and regulate the cultural sector across all Arab countries, but the name of the official government reference institution varies from one country to another. However, the core mission of those ministries remains consistent: they are responsible for developing and implementing government policy on culture, heritage, and artistic and cultural development and are the primary authority for following up cultural activities and facilities.

Despite the challenges and issues facing such government institutions, and the significant lack of effective mechanisms for evaluating, monitoring, and assessing the official cultural policies of the ministry and its affiliated entities, it is difficult to obtain primary information; it usually comes only from official statements and the poor design and content of the websites of these institutions. Additionally, the processes of spending, investment, and operation, along with operational reports and implementing plans, go through complex administrative procedures that hinder researchers’ access to important data. As a result, external evaluation and assessment of the work of these official institutions become increasingly difficult.

A survey conducted by the International Alliance of Independent Publishers emphasizes the importance of modernizing these official institutions to prevent them from becoming bureaucratic, slow, and ineffective ones, whose role is limited to management and censorship, which would diminish their role in cultural production and change them gradually to mere observers and regulators of the cultural production process.

National book organizations of government institutions and ministries typically handle the development and implementation of national policies. However, several Arab countries, including Egypt, Syria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Yemen, have created specialized directorates, general bodies, and councils dedicated to the promotion, support and services of books.

Government agencies dedicated to reading play a crucial role in shaping public policy. The absence of such agencies and bodies is evident in most of the Arab countries surveyed.

There are no such institutions in Lebanon, Jordan, the Sultanate of Oman, Sudan, Egypt, Kuwait, and Syria, i.e. the government institutions that support reading in communities do not exist in those countries. But they exist in Morocco and Tunisia and play limited role in promoting reading activities, raising the level of readers, offering opportunities, and providing reading services to all age groups, regardless of gender, race, or religion.

Morocco is one of the few Arab countries included in the study that systematically and institutionally support reading. The Moroccan MoC has a Public Reading Department that oversees the Library Management Department, the Manuscripts Department, Heritage Libraries, and the Programming and Artistic Interventions Department. It includes 108 commercial and media libraries. There is also a central unified index of the Department’s libraries.

Tunisia is an example of consideration, evaluation and appreciation in the field of reading. In addition to the “Reading Department” within the Ministry, there are twenty-four regional libraries that hold the status of an “institution”. Furthermore, Tunisia has 430 public libraries and numerous mobile libraries throughout the country.

Table 2 – Official government institutions or bodies designated for the book

Main Stakeholders in the Publishing Sector

A publisher, or publishing house, is a foundation or individual that issues, prints, and distributes books, magazines, and newspapers, holding the responsibility for the funding, as well as the publishing risks. It is the body that manages the entire publishing process, in collaboration with the author, printer, and distributors, employing its money, effort, and time to ensure that the final product reaches readers.

The publishing sector in the Arab countries covered by the survey consists of various types of publishers. Understanding the relationships among the key actors in this sector is crucial for mapping the industry and monitoring interactions within it, with a view to deepening the understanding of publishing sector governance across the surveyed Arab countries.

Publishers can be categorized into three main types:

1. Government Publishers: this category includes the institutions involved in publishing, such as official ministries (particularly the Ministries of Culture and Information), state-affiliated organizations like the general book organizations, translation institutes and centers, national libraries, government universities and their associated academic bodies, research centers, official newspapers and magazines, and public museums.
2. Private (commercial) publishers: they are the publishers that seek to make profit from their activities in the publishing industry. This category includes private publishers, whether publishing print books, e-books, private magazines and newspapers, as well as printing presses with publishing licenses, and private museums.
3. Non-profit, non-governmental publishers: the publishers that publish books not for profit, but for various academic and marketing purposes. This category includes private universities, private museums, private research centers, and private charitable and development-oriented associations. This type does not constitute a large share of the publishing industry, and it is relatively new in Arab countries.

Without a doubt, a government publisher plays a fundamental, effective, and generally positive role in the publishing industry. However, its most significant contribution lies in its complementary relationship with the private sector. A government publisher’s role should extend beyond mere censorship and regulation; it should foster a partnership with the private sector while also protecting the intellectual and financial rights of authors. By avoiding competition as a goal and focusing on collaborative projects and partnerships with the private sector, both sectors can experience positive development.

Knowing and analyzing the government policies regulating and managing the publishing sector are essential for gaining a comprehensive understanding of their impact and effectiveness on the sector’s development, or its decline and deterioration. They also help us understand the administrative and organizational weaknesses and gaps, the nature of the relationship between the government and the commercial sector; is it a competitive dynamic one, a relationship of facilitation and support, or characterized by oversight and control?

Official Public Policies of Electronic and Traditional Books

Official cultural policies are a set of strategies and guidelines adopted by governments to promote and develop cultural sectors within society. These policies aim to conserve cultural heritage, support arts and creativity, disseminate culture to all segments of society, and ensure a diverse range of cultural activities.

The public policy-making process usually starts with the development of a plan that is informed by analysis and consultations with stakeholders in the publishing industry. These stakeholders make proposals and recommendations for the plan. Following this, the relevant government bodies prepare a cultural plan, outlining the policies proposed, implementation mechanisms, and execution timeline.

After that, the procedures are determined, including a detailed plan of actions to achieve the objectives, such as establishing new cultural institutions, supporting cultural production, and launching awareness campaigns about the importance of culture.

When the participants were asked about the mechanisms used by government institutions to develop strategies, most responses indicated that stakeholders in the publishing and book sector—such as writers, publishers, and libraries—were not included in the development of such policies, which creates significant gaps between the policies and their implementation. The majority of respondents reported that the main issue with these policies is the absence of clear mechanisms or specific laws to regulate the involvement of the publishing actors, whether individuals or associations, in the decision-making and policy-setting process. It remains unclear whether these associations and individuals possess voting rights or their involvement is limited to consultation. If consultations do occur, they are personal, and the selection of participants can be ambiguous or random.

The responses highlighted a common challenge faced by independent publishers: the marginalization of their voices due to the weak legal frameworks and mechanisms that inhibit their ability to directly influence public cultural policies. Although government agencies develop plans and directives under the supervision of the central government, these plans are often not clearly defined and lack a specific vision. Therefore, one may conclude that the notion of “public policy” is neither stable nor deeply ingrained in the cultural landscape of the Arab countries surveyed. This concept is considered immature and largely fluid, partly, due to the political and economic challenges these countries have faced over decades, which have impacted the development of cultural policies.

Out of the eleven countries surveyed, seven have cultural policies of a national dimension for traditional books. For instance, the government of Oman has initiated a cultural strategy called “Midad,” which is a project within the 2024-2040 Cultural Strategy. The Project aims to promote books as intellectual works by sponsoring their printing and translation, supporting researchers, and promoting Omani books, locally and internationally.

Egypt has similar project: the National Translation Project, which supervises the translation, publication, and distribution of many titles each year. In Morocco, the MoC offers annual grants to support writing, publishing, and translation.

In several Arab countries, government agencies and ministries do not have any cultural policies or strategies for publishing, in general, and book publishing, in particular. Therefore, these institutions fail to support the publishing industry. Lebanon, Sudan, and Yemen are examples of the countries where official institutions do not have book-related public policies, as indicated by the respondents’ answers.

It is worth mentioning that some policies in Arab countries focus solely on traditional books and do not include e-books. Among the ten countries surveyed, only three include e-books in their cultural publishing policies. This reflects the weak government institutions’ response to the e-publishing sector; for that it has not been recognized as a core element of their cultural policies.

Table 3 – Cultural policies in Arab countries

Local Publishers Associations between Dependence and Independence

A publishers association (PA) is a professional organization that represents publishers and unites them in an official body dedicated to regulating the publishing sector, safeguarding the rights of members, and advancing the publishing industry locally, regionally, and internationally. A PA can be local, representing publishers in a particular country, regional, such as the Arab Publishers Association (APA), or international, such as the International Publishers Association (IPA). The associations aim to enhance collaboration among publishers, defend their rights and interests, and promote cultural and industrial creativity within the publishing sector. They also advocate for laws and policies that protect the rights of both authors and publishers, and contribute to the dissemination of knowledge and culture.

A PA plays a crucial role in representing the interests of publishers; it is their voice with governments and international institutions, ensuring that their interests are realized and their rights are protected. A PA also fosters the dissemination of Arab culture and promotes literary and intellectual production. By creating a collaborative environment among local and international publishers, it opens up new horizons for publishing and distribution. Additionally, a PA works to limit the infringement of authors’ and publishers’ rights, as well as contributes to the protection of intellectual property.

Roles of a Publishers’ Association:

• Represents publishers before governments and international institutions. PA’s communicate with government agencies to develop the publishing sector-related policies and laws, such as tax exemptions, censorship, and organization of book fairs.
• Organizes cultural events and book fairs through international and local fairs. A PA organizes book fairs which provide a platform for publishers to display and sell their publications and communicate with readers.
• Coordinates among authors and publishers; a PA helps establish a balanced relationship among authors and publishers, and works to conclude fair contracts that ensures the rights of both parties.
• Monitors public policies; a PA plays a role in monitoring government agencies’ compliance with the laws related to the publishing sector and ensuring their enforcement. Additionally, it raises awareness about the significance of having public policies that support the publishing industry.

Local publishers associations can be categorized into two types:

First, independent PA’s in some Arab countries, including Morocco, Lebanon, and Tunisia, where they have a degree of independence from the state. Their main purpose is to represent publishers, regulate the publishing industry, and protect the rights of the members inside the country. These PA’s function independently of government influence, but may collaborate with governments to implement national cultural policies.

Second, state-affiliated PA’s in some Arab countries, where they are supervised by or directly affiliated to the governments or ministries of culture and information. In these situations, the state plays a significant role in regulating the operations of these PA’s, including the ratification of their decisions and intervening in their activities.

This kind of dependency may hinder the PA’s ability to effectively advocate for publishers’ interests, especially regarding freedom of expression and publishing.

In the countries where governments dominate the publishing sector, PA’s may face limitations in expressing their opinions or advocating for their members’ rights if those rights contradict the state’s policies.

Direct affiliation can create a conflict between the interests of publishers and the state’s requirements, particularly concerning the issues of content censorship.

The Relationship Between Local Arab Publishers’ Associations and the Arab Publishers Association (APA)

The APA serves as an umbrella organization for local PA’s in Arab countries. These local PA’s operate under the APA in both regional and international matters.

The APA is an independent organization that is not controlled by any Arab government. However, it collaborates with Arab countries through their Ministries of Culture and Information to help regulate the publishing industry in the region. Occasionally, the APA also serves as a mediator between local PA’s and governments to resolve disputes or address regulatory concerns.

Local PA’s collaborate closely with the APA in various areas, such as:

• Coordinating participation in regional and international book fairs.
• The APA supports local the PA’s facing national challenges, such as disputes on intellectual property rights and censorship restrictions.
• Relationship with the APA: most local PA’s are essential members of the APA, collaborating on regional and international matters. The relationship between the two sides is founded on coordination and mutual support.

Absence of Information, Reports, and Statistics; the Publishing World Lacks Reliable Information

The failure of Arab countries to recognize the book industry as a complicated one led to the absence of clear data regarding the publishing industry contribution to the national economy of each country. For instance, there are no specific figures available on the impact of books on Egypt’s national income, as printing, binding, and book production tools are integrated with other industries. It’s important to note that the Egyptian publishing sector accounts for approximately 30 to 40 percent of the Arab publishing market, while Lebanon contributes to around 5 percent. As a result, the publishing industry receives little attention in Arab countries, leading to a decline in the efforts to solve its problems and in its support. ¹

The significance of statistics and research in the publishing industry arises from their crucial role in enhancing and understanding this dynamic field. They offer a solid foundation for decision-making, inform business strategies, and improve the adaptability to contemporary challenges and technological advancements. The following points highlight the importance of statistics and research for the publishing industry:

• Market analysis and understanding the audience: statistics help us understand what types of books appeal to the audience.
• Strategic planning and decision-making: they provide information on financial returns and help control production costs.
• Assessment of intellectual property rights and anti-piracy: research and statistics can help measure the prevalence of pirated books and identify the most affected sectors.

The survey results show a critical shortage and significant gaps in statistical reports, studies, and research information regarding the publishing sector in the Arab countries covered by the survey. The lack of detailed reports on workers and stakeholders in the publishing industry deprives the sector of a vital source needed for decision-making, planning, and understanding general publishing trends.

For instance, in Syria, accurate and up-to-date statistics on the number of books published each year are lacking. However, some general statistics, including the number and kind of books published by the MoC, can be found on websites such as the Statistical Abstract covering the years 2012 to 2022.

The same applies to Yemen, where the last report from the Cultural Media Center regarding the state of the publishing sector was published in 2014-2015. Since that time, no further reports have been released to provide an accurate overview of the current status of publishing in Yemen.

Lack of information is not confined to the Arab countries facing political and social instability, violent conflicts, and significant economic crises; it is also the case in socially and politically stable countries, such as Jordan and Kuwait, where neither official nor non-governmental institutions publish regular reports on the state of the publishing industry.

It is important to note that informal organizations, non-governmental organizations, universities, and academic research centers are largely absent from producing reports on the publishing sector. The APA is almost the only entity that regularly publishes reports and statistics related to this field. The APA does an admirable job by issuing annual reports on the publishing sector in several Arab countries. However, this activity is insufficient and does not fully address the sector’s need for comprehensive information, studies, and statistics, as the reports do not cover all Arab countries (as is the case of this report). Investing in an electronic platform that transforms the APA reports into a searchable and analyzable format would greatly enhance their utility. This platform could serve as an excellent reference tool for understanding the publishing sector, covering all Arab countries, and expanding the scope of the reports to include sales data and detailed studies on publishing laws and governance.

Table 4 – Institutions specializing in reporting on the publishing industry

When we examine a closely related sector to publishing and books—namely reading and literacy—we find that the role of official institutions is primarily limited to conducting research and producing statistics on literacy, adult learning, and school dropout rates. Research aimed at promoting reading and writing takes a back seat and faces significant gaps as well.

On the other side, international organizations and local and regional civil society organizations in some Arab countries are working to address the knowledge and statistical gaps related to reading and perusal.

In Syria, for example, in 2021, UNESCO released a summary report assessing literacy and life skills among Syrian youth. The Report shed light on the state of literacy and life skills among young people in Syria. “Literacy and Life Skills Assessment of Syrian Youth (2021) Summary Report”. UNESCO Digital Library.

It is the same in Lebanon, where social initiatives, which are carried out by civil society organizations, make research and conduct activities to encourage reading. Although these initiatives are important, it is difficult for civil society organizations and international organizations to fill the gap created by the lack of intervention by the state and official institutions to support reading, research, and statistics at the level of the MoC’s policies and social development strategies.

Political, social, and economic crises, along with the local and regional conflicts, have significantly affected the work of research and statistical centers in many of the countries covered by the study, such as Yemen, Syria, and Lebanon, where the conditions and human and financial resources necessary for conducting research, are not available. Additionally, the authorities do not invest in these areas and sector, largely due to their perception that such issues are less important compared with the humanitarian and living priorities.

Table 5 – Research on reading, writing, and perusal

The survey and research results show no significant disparities among the Arab countries surveyed, despite their variant economic, political, social, and living conditions. Countries like Syria, Sudan, Yemen, and Lebanon have been facing violent conflicts and severe economic and political crises for over a decade, which depleted their resources. The same is true for other countries that are experiencing good stability at all levels, such as Kuwait, Morocco, and the Sultanate of Oman. This reflects the lack of governance among culture-related institutions, in general, and in publishing, in particular.

Government Support, the Biggest Absentee

Government book support: is a set of policies and measures taken by governments to promote and develop the book industry within their countries. This support includes providing financial and logistic assistance to publishers, authors, and libraries with a view to ensuring the continuity and dissemination of cultural production. Such government support is a vital tool for encouraging reading and fostering the promotion of education and culture in society.

Government support for the publishing sector is regarded as one of the most crucial intervention policies implemented by the state. This support aims to develop the publishing industry, protect it from deterioration, and keep it above an acceptable level. The importance of this sector goes beyond financial and commercial considerations, to encompass significant cultural and social dimensions.

Types of government support for books:

First: financial support can come in various forms; one is direct support for publishers, through which governments offer grants or low-interest loans to help with production, printing, and distribution processes. Another form of government support includes tax reductions or exemptions. Some countries exempt the publishing sector from certain taxes, such as value-added tax (VAT), or reduce customs duties on imported raw materials for the book industry, such as paper and ink.

A third way of support is purchasing books for public libraries; governments should support publishers by purchasing large quantities of books and distributing them to public libraries and educational institutions.

Second: logistic and technical support; in some countries, governments offer printing presses or government publishing houses to produce books at low prices.

Governments also support participation in international and local book fairs by providing platforms for local publishers and enhancing promotional efforts.

Third: legislative and legal support, which is done through enacting laws that protect the rights of authors, publishers, and translators from piracy and other violations. Additionally, some countries have laws that require the deposit of at least one copy of every new book in the national libraries to ensure the preservation of cultural works.

Fourth: educational and training support through scholarships and trainings for authors, publishers, translators, and librarians with a view to developing their skills and enhancing their competencies. Supporting research on publishing and books also promotes sustainable industry development.

Fifth: cultural and promotional support which encompasses various forms, such as launching awareness campaigns by the governments to encourage reading among citizens, particularly young people, and providing school programs that promote reading.

Other forms include literary awards offered by the governments to inspire authors to create high-quality content and promote creative writing.

In most Arab countries surveyed, except Tunisia, there is a notable absence of government subsidization for publishers. Ironically, this lack of subsidization occurs not only in the countries facing economic, political, and security crises, but also in those experiencing political, economic, and social stability.

Therefore, this lack of government subsidization for the cultural publishing sector cannot be attributed to insufficient financial resources. Rather, it results from the lack of vision for this sector and the failure to recognize its role, which goes beyond the mere commercial one. Ultimately, governments do not support the publishing sector because they view it as a secondary and non-essential one.

In the Arab countries surveyed, there are no bureaucratic facilitations or tax exemptions available to assist publishers in their operations. Additionally, there are no government programs designed to provide publishers with economic or low-interest loans (subsidized by the government). However, publishers can get loans just like any other small commercial or industrial enterprise.

Respondents from all the Arab countries surveyed unanimously agreed on the necessity of providing low-interest or long-term loans by the relevant official institutions. These loans are vital as they enhance the flexibility of publishers, especially independent and small publishers. They provide substantial support during the initial startup phase and enable further expansion, helping these publishers face the political and economic crises witnessed by many Arab countries.

Supporting the participation of publishers in local and international fairs by obtaining exemptions from fees or certain shipping costs gives the publishers an opportunity to access foreign markets that have greater purchasing power than local markets.

The second type of government support pertains to assisting specific aspects of the publishing process, including translation, authorship, co-publishing, and intellectual property rights. This form of support is more prevalent than direct assistance to publishers in many of the Arab countries surveyed.

Government support policies indicate that the majority of support is focused on publishing new books, with Lebanon and Palestine being the only exceptions; they do not offer this type of support. The percentage of Arab countries that support translation and co-publishing is quite low, and it is even lower for funding the costs associated with co-publishing and purchasing books, with only four of the countries surveyed offering support in these areas. Noticeably, the support for intellectual property rights related to books is close to zero among the surveyed Arab countries, with only Tunisia providing such support.

All respondents’ answers from all Arab countries agreed on the importance of expanding and diversifying government support. The responses emphasized the need for the relevant authorities to assist the private sector in organizing permanent book fairs, and to make obligatory for both government and private sector entities to allocate a portion of their support for book printing.

The participants’ responses emphasized also the need for specific laws and organizations for books, that provide support in various fields particularly in the areas of book production, marketing, and promotion, both within Arab countries and internationally.

Table 6 – Types of government support for publishers and its availability in the countries surveyed

Translation in Official Government Policies

Translation in public book policies is a crucial element to support the dissemination of culture and knowledge across societies. Translation plays a fundamental role in promoting cultural diversity and enhancing access to information. In the publishing industry, translation fosters linguistic pluralism and helps promote local literature on an international scale. Additionally, it contributes to the development of the local publishing industry and the protection of authors’ and translators’ rights.

The lack of government support is particularly noticeable in the field of translation. Translation—whether among national languages within the same country or from a national language to foreign languages, and vice versa—is a crucial step in the transfer of knowledge and the exchange of culture.

Translation is the highest cost in the publishing sector; translating one page ranges between eight and fifteen US dollars. This means that the private publishing sector cannot shoulder the burden of translation alone without robust government support. Factors, such as weak government support, high costs of translation, low purchasing power, and economic inflation, impact all aspects of publishing in the countries surveyed. This is evident in the low number of translated titles and the high prices of translated books compared with income levels in Arab countries. As a result, the weak translation movement significantly diminishes the cultural and intellectual standards in any given country.

The survey results indicate that there is a complete lack of government support for translation projects among national languages, save in one country, Morocco, which supports such projects; however, the support is restricted to government institutions, specifically the center associated with the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture. The Moroccan MoC does not support these projects in the private and independent sector. The support and production are absent in the other ten countries surveyed.

The situation described above resembles the process of translation from national languages into foreign languages, i.e. outward-oriented translation. Among the eleven countries surveyed, only three—Tunisia, Morocco, and the Sultanate of Oman—provide limited support for these translation projects. This support exists at the national level, but there is no support available at the local level in any of these countries.

Support for translation from foreign languages into national languages is primarily limited to government publishers. For instance, in Egypt, the National Center for Translation, the General Egyptian Book Organization, and the General Authority for Cultural Palaces foster the translation of works from various foreign languages as part of an annual plan. Similarly, in Syria, the SGOB handles the translation of selected works from foreign languages.

The above results indicate to a complete negligence by official government institutions towards the publishing sector at all levels, with Morocco being the only exception. Morocco has implemented clear government support policies for publishing, unlike the other Arab countries surveyed. This absence of government support is a significant factor contributing to the decline of the publishing industry in the Arab region, preventing it from reaching the levels seen in countries outside the region.

If government support for the publishing sector continues to be absent, the state’s role in one of the most critical areas of culture—books and publishing—will effectively disappear. Without such support, the publishing sector will remain fragile and unable to develop. The need for investment in the publishing sector is more pressing than ever in the Arab region, particularly in the light of the ongoing geopolitical and economic transformations, as well as the impact of global social media. Without a supportive strategy by the Arab governments, the entire publishing sector is at risk.

Incorporating government support programs and strategies that establish a knowledge transfer process among local languages within the same country helps to address a significant knowledge gap between communities, strengthens the social contract and enables publishing industry stakeholders to concentrate on the local market.

Implementing these policies will support the process of cultural decentralization. Planning government support programs at the regional or governorate level allows for a more inclusive approach that benefits all segments of society. Translation is essential in the book-related public policies; it fosters cultural diversity, spreads knowledge, and helps develop the publishing industry. With government backing and appropriate legislation, translation can serve as an effective tool for achieving cultural and educational development goals and enhancing global cultural communication.

Table 7 – Mechanisms of support for translation and publishing and their availability in Arab countries

Free Access to Markets and Fair Competition

Free access to markets, fair competition, and tax exemptions are crucial factors that contribute to the development of the publishing industry. These elements form a fundamental pillar of any country’s publishing sector, allowing publishers to sell and distribute their works across various markets without unnecessary obstacles. To enhance this access, official institutions develop policies aimed at removing trade barriers and customs restrictions, as well as providing both online and local sales platforms.

Fair competition in the publishing sector depends on a body of laws and procedures designed to prevent any single entity from dominating the market, thereby creating a level playing field for everyone involved. The key measures that promote fair competition include:

• Antitrust: laws that prevent certain publishers or distributors from dominating the market, enabling small and independent publishers to survive and grow.
• Promoting innovation and diversity: by supporting independent publishing and book production across various fields, offering readers multiple choices.

In most of the Arab countries surveyed, there are no laws specifically protecting the publishing sector from monopolies, and there is no legislation that ensures free competition and market access. Although some Arab countries have general commercial laws in place, they are not specifically designed for the publishing sector. Participants reported that the bureaucratic complexity and high costs associated with legal actions make it difficult for publishers and stakeholders to pursue recourse through the courts.

There are no decisions or laws that specifically facilitate access of the country’s publishers to public government transactions on books and publishing. This includes access to school curriculum tenders, procurements of public libraries, and government institutions, with the exception of Lebanon and the Sultanate of Oman. The respondents noted that the absence of such supportive measures deprives the private publishing sector of a significant and essential portion of the publishing market. As a result, this situation makes the private publishing sector less adaptable and weakens the production process, because publishers are denied a major source of income in the industry.

The absence of appropriate legislation makes public tenders and the government publishing market exclusive to a small group of publishing professionals. For instance, in Morocco, publishers and booksellers have raised concerns about the absence of transparency in public contracts, and about unfair competition caused by some publishers and distributors who sell directly to schools or libraries, bypassing the established book sales process. Many affected parties refrain from taking legal action due to the limited resources and challenges within the legal system. To address this issue, the National Association of Independent Booksellers is currently lobbying the Ministry to make the awarding of public contracts mandatory through commercial bookstores.

Arab Book Fairs: Missed Opportunities and Limited Profits

Arab book fairs serve as lively cultural platforms that bring together publishers, authors, intellectuals, and readers from different countries. Their primary goals are to promote reading, spread knowledge, support the book industry, and foster communication among Arab and international cultures. Additionally, these fairs play a significant role in achieving important cultural and economic objectives for the publishing industry in the Arab world.

Arab book fairs aim to promote reading and literature among people of all ages and genders, introduce new works by authors and publishers, and attract stakeholders of the publishing industry to attend the fairs and participate in the side activities held during the fair.

Fairs offer a valuable opportunity to strengthen the publishing industry in the Arab world by promoting the works published in Arabic. They aim to market and introduce these publications to Arab readers as well as to Arab and foreign publishers. Additionally, the exhibitions help highlight cultural identity and enhance the reputation of publications within the Arab world.

The role of book fairs is demonstrated through:

• Stimulating the book industry, by having in place marketing and promotional platforms, book fairs support local writers and publishers, and thereby strengthen the book industry in the region.
• Regulating the publishing industry; book fairs are opportunities for publishers and government agencies to discuss publishing challenges and how to develop cultural policies.
• Expanding the publishing market; book fairs help Arab publishers have access to new markets, both regionally and internationally.
• Enhancing intellectual property rights; through seminars and workshops, book fairs shed light on the importance of protection of authors’ and publishers’ rights.

Participation in Arab book fairs is done through registration via fairs’ official websites, providing information about the books or publications to be displayed, and complying with the regulations and conditions set by organizers.

Arab book fairs play a crucial role in promoting reading and supporting the publishing industry. However, they encounter several challenges that affect their effectiveness and ability to meet their goals. These challenges stem from economic, organizational, and cultural factors. Below are the major challenges:

• The low-income levels in some Arab countries, limit individuals’ ability to buy books, which reduces publishers’ sales at book fairs, especially with the fact that book prices are high due to the increased printing and publishing costs, particularly the rising prices of paper and ink.
• Most book fairs suffer from insufficient government subsidization, which affects the quality of organization and the accompanying events. Relying on the fees imposed on publishers and participants to cover a fair costs raises the expenses of participation, making it commercially unfeasible for independent publishers.
• Weak organization by the bodies supervising the organization of fairs; the survey responses indicated that a major issue in the fairs is their organization. Very often, book fairs are scheduled in various Arab countries simultaneously or within close timeframes, which decreases attendance and negatively affects publishers’ participation. Additionally, the insufficient promotion of book fairs and the inadequate media campaigns fail to effectively market the events and their content of books and publishers.

The poor organization results in missed important opportunities for publishers, especially independent ones.

• The complicated administrative procedures for participating in book fairs can delay or discourage some publishers’ registration; Some countries require prior censorship approvals for the participating books, which can delay the display of new books.
• Restrictions on the freedom of publication and expression in some countries can prevent some books from being showcased at fairs, limiting the content diversity. Censorship may lead to disputes between publishers and organizers, hindering, thereby, the participation of some publishers.
• Publishers encounter considerable logistic challenges when shipping books to fairs in other countries, mainly due to the high shipping costs and customs complications. Such restrictions on importing and exporting books in some countries can delay their arrival of books into these fairs.

Arab book fairs encounter several challenges, but, by implementing sustainable and comprehensive strategies, they can become a significant engine to enhance the publishing industry and promote culture in the Arab world. Governments and organizers need to adopt policies that encourage reading and publishing and remove the obstacles faced by publishers and the public, focusing, at the same time, on keeping up with technological advancements and enhancing regional and international partnerships.

Book fairs in the Arab world are vital for strengthening the publishing industry and advancing cultural development. They promote reading and support publishers while emphasizing the importance of cultural identity and the protection of authors’ rights. With effective coordination among official bodies and the private sector, book fairs can pave the way for more comprehensive and effective publishing policies in the Arab world.

Challenges of Government Procurement of Books

In many Arab countries, the budgets allocated for book procurement are quite limited, which means that a limited number of books is procured. This adversely affects support for publishers, particularly independent ones. Often, these budgets prioritize the procurement of specific types of books, such as educational books instead of cultural or literary ones or focus on specific topics, such as politics or religion, overlooking other topics like literature or humanities. This imbalance negatively affects the content available in public libraries. This, sometimes, arises from the absence of clear plans specifying the types of books to be procured, resulting in arbitrary procurement decisions that might not meet the readers’ needs.

The problem of unequal book procurement is also raised. Government procurement is often limited to major book fairs in large cities, which marginalizes the publishers of rural or less central regions and the books published by them.

The lack of transparency in some of the Arab countries surveyed raises concerns about bias within government agencies when selecting the publishers or the titles to be procured, some publishers might be excluded based on subjective criteria. Consequently, books of large and famous publishers are procured, while independent or new publishers are overlooked.

Procurements should consider cultural diversity; the books that reflect cultural or literary diversity must not be overlooked, particularly those published by small or independent publishers.

The issues mentioned adversely affect independent publishers, in particular. Unequal procurement of books decreases independent publishers’ opportunities to sell their books, putting the sustainability of these publishers at risk.

It is essential to establish clear criteria for book procurement to ensure diversity of cultural and scientific content. Additionally, it is important to increase the budgets allocated for book procurement from book fairs and to develop plans that support independent publishers.

Government book procurements from Arab book fairs serve as a crucial means of supporting the publishing industry and promoting culture in the Arab world. However, the limited and unequal access to this support undermines its effectiveness. To enhance this system and better achieve its goals of supporting publishers and spreading knowledge throughout society, it is important to adopt transparent and fair criteria, increase budgets, and diversify the types of books procured.

Library/Bookstore Support Policies

Libraries/Bookstores, both public and private, play a crucial role in the publishing sector; they connect all types of publishers with readers. While many publishers have their own bookstores and showcases, most of them depend on bookstores to distribute their publications and access various markets and readers. Bookstores are spaces for cultural activities; they host not only books, but also writers and authors to publish and promote their works and interact within their communities.

The publisher-bookstore relationships are integrative and vital to the publishing sector. Without such relationships, there is no stability in the industry. They play a crucial role in the stability and development of the publishing sector as a whole. Consequently, government support for bookstores can benefit the publishing sector as well. Moreover, providing facilitations and simplified procedures for bookstores would positively impact publishers and publishing industry at large.

When the survey participants were asked about the availability of support mechanisms for bookstores from government institutions in the Arab countries surveyed, the majority indicated that there is lack of tangible and effective support programs for bookstores. There are some exceptions, but their roles remain symbolic and very limited compared with the significant difficulties and challenges facing bookstores, particularly in the countries experiencing economic and political crises, such as Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, and Egypt. The bookstore sector is fragile and is directly correlated with the purchasing power of citizens.

For example, none of the Arab countries surveyed provide opportunities for keepers of bookstores to obtain low-interest commercial loans to enhance their bookstores operations. The same is true for the government subsidization aimed at the operational and logistic aspects of bookstores, such as subsidizing warehouse costs or providing shipping exemptions. This kind of support is entirely lacking in all the Arab countries surveyed.

Mechanisms for financial grants in the Arab countries are almost non-existent. When they do exist, they do not cover all bookstores, but are limited, not crucial and ineffective. They may come as incentive awards, as is the case in Jordan, or as few and small grants, as is the case in Egypt; This highlights the need to make them flexible, particularly in low-income countries.

Some Arab countries still lack policies that allow bookstores to have access to public tenders and auctions for books, including those offered by schools and universities. This limits the book market and reduces the opportunities of bookstores to make profits.

Table 8 – Bookstore support policies in Arab countries

Support Policies for Authors, Illustrators, and Designers

Some government policies that support cultural activities relating to books and publishing offer individuals opportunities to receive support to their careers in writing or designing publications. When these mechanisms are in place, they are deemed useful; they support the group that is responsible for the creative aspect of the publishing industry.

Support mechanisms can come in several forms, such as art residencies for writers and illustrators, writing or illustration bursaries, scholarships to help cover educational costs, external study grants for gaining experience at academic institutions of the world, direct assistance to cover publishing expenses, or various types of awards.

In the Arab countries surveyed, incentive awards are one of the most significant mechanisms for supporting the individuals in the publishing industry, whether in writing, design, or typography and layout.

Most of the countries surveyed, except Lebanon and Palestine, award incentive prizes. This trend may stem from the nature of literary prizes and the political or social messages they convey, which often align with the interests of the official agencies awarding them; literary prizes might, thus, be politicized, and then criticized. Criticizing literary prizes, even the most prestigious ones, is common and not limited to the countries surveyed. However, when a prize is awarded, it generates media coverage for the creative work, which can encourage reading and foster continuity.

Some survey responses indicated that the primary issue with awards is the lack of transparency regarding the criteria for awarding them, which makes them more susceptible to personal biases and personal relationships and clientelism.

Awards undoubtedly hold both moral and material significance, but being almost the only official mechanism to support the publishing sector across all the Arab countries surveyed means that this mechanism is almost the one to which attention is given. Despite its immense importance, this mechanism remains limited and subject to favoritism.

Against the numerous awards available, the survey results show an almost complete absence of scholarships in the policies of support to both male and female authors and illustrators, with the exception of Egypt and Morocco. Government policies do not offer any opportunities for individuals wishing to pursue studies in writing and design.

Table 9 – Policies of support to individuals

The publishing sector in the Arab region faces numerous problems, challenges, and difficulties at all levels. Additionally, the policies and mechanisms implemented by government institutions to support, intervene in, and manage the publishing industry are inadequate and satisfy only a small portion of the needs of publishing industry.

These policies seem ineffective in the face of the political and economic crises and local and regional conflicts in many of the countries surveyed. In response to these circumstances and crises, exceptional measures must be taken to prevent the publishing industry from deteriorating to the point of disappearing in some countries.

Many promising opportunities exist for the growth and advancement of the publishing industry in the countries with relatively stable economic and political conditions, through the adoption of policies targeted at the institutions, publishers, and individuals involved in the industry. These opportunities seem promising if mechanisms of subsidization, tax exemptions, and scholarships are adopted, among others, rather than relying on awards as the only and preferable option for official institutions to support the publishing sector.

Excluding the private sector from the publishing-related development of strategies and decision-making means that a key player with direct contact with stakeholders and workers, and with accumulated experience and knowledge will be ignored. It would be an excessive disregard not involve it in the policymaking process.

The lack of support policies at most levels and phases of the publishing industry transforms the role of official institutions from a positive and effective one to a negative one, hindering the growth and expansion of the industry.

Publishers play a crucial role in the publishing industry and a pivotal role in knowledge transfer and ensuring that it reaches readers and beneficiaries. However, under the current government policies, publishers bear the majority of the risks associated with the publishing industry, especially considering the conditions currently facing the Arab region as a whole.

Government institutions should support the publishing industry to enhance the role of publishers, instead of creating bureaucratic hurdles and censorship challenges that limit their flexibility, make them more vulnerable, and deter their willingness to take risks, experiment, and explore in publishing.

Appendix 2 – Support and intervention policies in Arab countries

Survey results per Arab country:

The Survey covered publishers and stakeholders from eleven Arab countries: Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Kuwait, Oman, Sudan, Yemen, Palestine, and Jordan.

Categorizing the questions based on the types of beneficiaries from government support, the participants were asked about the public policies of book support: are the cultural support policies implemented directly by official institutions, or the support is provided directly to publishers?

What are the support policies for translation and joint publishing in the Arab countries surveyed?

From a business standpoint, the participants were asked about the support policies offered by official institutions to private bookstores, which are key players in the publishing industry.

The topic of support policies also covered the assistance provided to the individuals working in the publishing industry, including authors, illustrators, and graphic designers.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The Jordanian MoC is the main body responsible for developing and implementing public policies for the publishing industry. The survey results indicate that the Ministry does not have a dedicated public body to support books or promote reading. This would have a negative effect on the publishing industry, as lacking such a body leaves a great space empty.

There is no official organization in Jordan that conducts field research on publishing, books, and reading. This, too, creates knowledge gaps regarding the reality and nature of the publishing industry in Jordan.

In Jordan, there are no policies that support and assist publishers. There is no official mechanism in place that allows publishers to access government subsidization, whether direct or through loans. The same applies to supporting publishers participate in national and international book salons and fairs, in both cases of printed and electronic books.

The current production support policies offer only limited assistance from the MoC for publishing works chosen through the selection committee. However, there is no support for translations of all types, co-publishing initiatives, assistance with transferring rights, and help with purchasing rights.

The Jordanian government policies provide only incentive awards to bookstores, lacking all other support forms such as financing, low-interest loans, export aid, or tax exemptions.

Finally, regarding the support for individual authors and illustrators, official policies do not offer any form of assistance, be it scholarships, direct funding, or residencies.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The Egyptian MoC includes within its structure a general authority dedicated to books; however, reading is absent from the structure of the Ministry. According to the survey respondents, the Egyptian MoC does not develop national or regional cultural policies regarding printed or traditional books.

Some research and statistical observatories, including the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics, The Egyptian NLA, and the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, provide information on the traditional and digital book sector. These institutions also publish reports on the publishing landscape in Egypt, conduct research on illiteracy, literacy efforts.

The Egyptian MoC does not offer any direct financial support to publishers. However, it does provide limited assistance for the production of specific works and supports joint publishing projects. The Ministry does not support translation or help in transferring rights.

The Ministry’s subsidized translation projects are exclusively available to government publishers, including the National Center for Translation, the General Egyptian Book Organization, and the General Authority for Cultural Palaces. The Ministry does not offer any translation support to private publishers.

The production of traditional and digital books in Egypt receives limited support through the policies of official cultural institutions, as there are no comprehensive policies for all stages of book production.

Similarly, the bookstore sector suffers from gaps in government support whether as grants, low-interest loans, or administrative and logistic facilities.

Support for individuals involved in the book production process is limited to writing bursaries provided annually by the Ministry.

Republic of Sudan

Undoubtedly, the ongoing armed conflict in Sudan adversely affects all aspects of life, including the publishing industry and the production of intellectual and cultural knowledge. The country’s division between the warring armed groups has marginalized and weakened the role of official cultural institutions. The MoC is the body responsible for developing the policies and mechanisms relating to books, publishing, and related matters.

The MoC in Sudan lacks any public body dedicated to books, or reading. There is no official body that provides reports or statistics on either printed or digital books, nor is there general information about reading or illiteracy in the country. Before the outbreak of the armed conflict in Sudan, the National Library of the Sudan published regularly research and reports on books and reading. However, the conflict has entirely disrupted its activities.

There is no support for publishers, whether subsidization, administrative and logistic facilities, or low-interest loans. It is worth mentioning that this lack of support existed even before the eruption of conflict in Sudan.

Government policies to support book production are extremely limited, even prior to the conflict. They focus only on supporting books and co-publishing works, while translation in all forms lacks support through the country’s policies.

The publishing industry in Sudan lacks all kinds of support, with only a few incentive awards available for writers and books. As a result, the entire industry is currently facing a sharp decline. Without proper support for publishers in Sudan, the future of the industry is at risk.

Republic of Yemen

The situation in Yemen is quite similar to that in Sudan. For nearly ten years, Yemen has been grappling with both local and regional conflicts, which have severely affected the publishing landscape. As a result, many official government institutions involved in books and publishing have been suspended. The MoC used to organize conferences on books and publishing, attracting many private publishers who participated in the policy-making process. However, this process has come to a halt since 2013 due to ongoing armed conflict. Consequently, all organizations and centers responsible for reporting on the status of books, reading, and literacy in Yemen have ceased their operations.

The key former players in the policy-making include the MoC, the MoI, Yemen’s GAB, the National Library, and Yemen Center for Strategic Studies & Research.

The Yemeni government currently offers no support to publishers, and all forms of support for both printed and electronic book production have ceased. The effects of the ongoing conflict have significantly impacted the book sector, resulting in the suspension of all policies that previously supported translation in Yemen. Previously, there was support for translating works into Arabic.

There have been no contingency or response plans to address the impact of the conflict on the publishing sector. As a result, Yemen has experienced a near-total withdrawal of official cultural institutions from this industry. Currently, the role of cultural policies is restricted to censorship and typical bureaucratic processes.

Kuwait

Compared with some of the Arab countries surveyed, Kuwait is viewed as a politically and economically stable country. The National Council for Culture, Arts, and Literature plays a vital role in shaping the public policies that support books, reading, and publishing. The Council is the official institution responsible for books in Kuwait, but reading is not one of the responsibilities, and, as a result, no relevant policies have been developed in this area.

Participants’ responses confirmed the Council’s crucial role as an active publisher of cultural books, translating global literature and theatre, and publishing them at symbolic prices.

Although there is no official organization responsible for preparing reports, studies, and statistics on the publishing, book, and reading sectors in Kuwait, the Ministry of Planning issues statistics literacy, as an important development indicator in the State of Kuwait, and not as part of cultural policies.

While the National Council focuses on publishing, translation, and distribution, there is no official government agency responsible for developing policies and strategies that would invest in, expand, and develop the publishing industry at all levels.

Kuwait does not have support policies for publishers, such as loans, direct subsidies, or logistic facilities, which would assist Kuwaiti publishers in developing their businesses and markets.

The policies that support the production of printed and digital books in Kuwait are limited to the publication of some works and provision of assistance for advance public book procurements. Additionally, there are no policies in place to support any kind of translation in Kuwait; translation is supported through the National Council for Culture, Arts, and Literature only.

Private bookstores currently lack any support mechanisms through which they can receive government support. Establishing such mechanisms would enhance the publishing sector in Kuwait overall.

Government support is limited to individual authors and illustrators, and to incentive awards for writers and translators, with complete absence of any other kind of support, such as scholarships or residencies for writers and illustrators.

Lebanese Republic

Lebanon has long been recognized as a key player in Arab culture and publishing. The Lebanese MoC serves as the executive body responsible for cultural affairs in general; however, since its establishment, there has been no national or public body dedicated to books and reading in its structure. The Ministry oversees several public libraries that receive support from civil society, while the Ministry of Education, through the Directorate of Cultural Activities, organizes events aimed at promoting reading.

There are no public policies to support books in the MoC’s programs, nor does the Ministry include national or regional cultural policies that address both paper and electronic books.

The Ministry does not provide statistical data or reports on the publishing industry, book, and reading. NGOs address some gaps by conducting studies and research, including research on teaching reading and writing and literacy measurements.

Some reports are issued by the Central Directorate of Statistics as part of studying the living and social conditions of residents in Lebanon.

All forms of support are nearly absent, whether for the production of paper and electronic books, or for publishers, bookstores, translators, or individuals, including authors and illustrators.

The only opportunity provided by the MoC to publishers and bookstores is having access to public tenders to purchase school books and curricula. However, feedback indicates that personal relationships significantly influence which publishers and bookstores would be awarded contracts; this is not done through transparent mechanisms that ensure equal opportunities for all to be awarded contracts.

Kingdom of Morocco

Public policies regarding books seem to be clearer and more robust in Morocco. The Ministry of Youth, Culture and Communication is responsible for formulating public cultural policies, including those pertaining to books and the publishing industry.

Within the Ministry there are several institutions and bodies that are concerned with paper and electronic books; they are the Directorate of Book, Public Libraries, and Archive, with twelve regional branches. Additionally, the Moroccan National Library and the Moroccan Archives Institution are both under the authority of the Ministry.

The same is true for reading, as the Ministry has a Public Reading Department that supervises several divisions: the Library Management Department, the Manuscripts and Heritage Libraries Department, and the Programming and Technical Interventions Department. This department manages 108 bookstore and media libraries and maintains a central index.

The Ministry, along with its affiliated departments and organizations, develop a national cultural policy that encompasses both printed and electronic books, through inviting proposals for publishing projects and establishing Hassan II Prize for Manuscripts.

Survey participants reported that these invitations face bureaucratic issues and requirements that are hard to meet, making them inaccessible to many entities.

Regarding the role of publishers and writers in shaping policies and mechanisms, respondents highlighted the participation of the Moroccan Writers’ Association. However, they noted that there is no comprehensive proposal that addresses the interests of many independent publishers. These publishers have come together to form the Independent Publishers’ Association, which seeks support and assistance particularly to ensure they can participate in international book fairs.

The Ministry and its affiliated organizations support research and studies relating to books, publishing, and literacy to promote reading and writing. In 2015, King Abdul-Aziz Al Saoud Foundation started publishing an annual report on the state of publishing and books in literature, humanities, and social sciences in both print and digital formats across all languages in Morocco ². Additionally, the National Library prepares and releases an annual index of the books published in Morocco.

In 2017, one of the MoC’s initiatives aimed to promote reading awareness with a budget of 1.5 million dirhams.

Morocco’s cultural policies currently do not provide support for publishers, and there are no direct subsidization options, such as economic loans, available to them. However, Moroccan publishers can apply for support to participate in international book fairs.

In terms of production support policies, the MoC provides support for the production of both paper and electronic books at various levels. This includes subsidization for publishing, joint publishing, translation aid, and help with transferring rights.

It’s worth mentioning that, alongside the MoC, there are several key players supporting the publishing sector in Morocco. The French Institute in Morocco, with its publishing assistance program, is the second most significant supporter of books after the MoC. This program focuses on providing translation assistance and purchasing French publishing rights. Recently, the “Books Between Two Shores” program, managed by the French Institute in Paris, has facilitated some translation and co-publishing projects since 2021 and is anticipated to continue until 2026.

Partnerships among official institutions, associations, and non-profit organizations positively influence the publishing sector across all its categories. They strengthen, develop, and broaden the scope of publishers, creating opportunities to promote Moroccan works globally.

Morocco’s national cultural policies create opportunities for translation projects, including translations from local languages to foreign languages and vice versa, as well as translations among local languages within Morocco. The Translation Center of the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture is responsible for translations among the national languages in the country.

The publishing industry involves not only the MoC and private sector entities, but also many public and private universities, other ministries, including the Ministry of Endowments and the Ministry of Education, and some private organizations, like the National Bank of Morocco and various private banks.

The government does not have a specific program to support private bookstores, whether through direct subsidies or low-interest loans. The only available option for bookstores is the export support and exemptions from certain taxes on the books published outside of Morocco. It is crucial to have in place a policy that supports bookstores in align with Morocco’s other policies in the publishing industry.

Book-related cultural policies also provide support for individual authors and illustrators; they enable them to apply for scholarships, provide them with creative spaces and art residencies, and benefit from the MoC’s invitations to publish and write.

The foregoing results of the Survey indicate that the cultural institutions of the Moroccan government integrate various elements of the publishing industry into their cultural plans, offering numerous opportunities and grants. These policies present a significant opportunity for the publishing sector in Morocco, particularly if they are further developed and updated to include as many stakeholders in the publishing industry as possible.

Republic of Tunisia

The MoC of Tunisia is tasked with developing book-related public policies. Its structure includes institutions dedicated to writing and reading, such as the General Directorate of Books, which encompasses both the Department of Literature and the Department of Public Reading. This organizational structure enhances the MoC’s ability to better support the work.

The Ministry has national cultural policies for paper books only, leaving e-books outside their scope. Its responsibilities include purchasing books and distributing them to public libraries and subsidizing the paper used for printing to benefit publishers.

When the Ministry formulates policies, it forms advisory committees of members from the Tunisian Publishers Association and the Tunisian Writers Association. However, the survey responses indicate that these committees are not fully functional. They lack the necessary powers or guaranties to ensure that their voices are heard when such policies are made.

Official government institutions in Tunisia do not regularly and systematically issue or distribute statistics on the status of books and publishing. This results in poor understanding of the publishing sector, its needs, and its trends, creating gaps between policies and the current state of the publishing industry.

Some research studies and reports are issued on reading and learning. The General Directorate of Reading at the Tunisian MoC organizes seminars focusing on this topic. Additionally, the General Directorate of Public Reading hosts regional competitions at the governorate level, which culminate in a major national festival aimed at promoting reading and learning. Cash prizes are awarded to winners across all ages and educational levels. As for the reports relating to education and literacy, they are the Ministry of Education’s responsibility, rather than the MoC.

A tax is imposed per copy when imported and when produced. The tax is deposited at a fund to support creativity, from which publishers and authors receive a share.

State of Palestine

The MoC, along with its subsidiary, the Palestinian Cultural Fund, are responsible for developing book-related public policies in the State of Palestine. However, the Ministry’s structure does not include any institutions or bodies specifically focused on books or reading.

Furthermore, public cultural policies do not incorporate books and reading, which means that independent publishers in the State of Palestine are not consulted on issues related to books or reading.

On the other hand, Palestinian civil society organizations appear to bridge the gaps left by the incomplete structure of cultural institutions in the State of Palestine. Several factors contribute to this situation, including limited resources, Israeli interference in cultural matters, a lack of independence from the policies of Israeli occupation in the West Bank, and the underperformance of official cultural institutions in Palestine.

The Abdul Hameed Kattan Foundation and Tamer Institute for Community Education are prominent Palestinian civil society organizations that offer many opportunities for book publishing and reading.

At the same time, official cultural institutions in the State of Palestine do not provide reports or statistics on the state of books and reading. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics only publishes general reports on Palestinian culture.

There is no government and official support for all forms of the publishing industry. Also, there are no policies for supporting publishers, bookstores, translators, and authors in the State of Palestine.

The only support offered by official institutions in Palestine is the exemptions of publishers from the fees for the Ramallah Book Fair held in the State of Palestine.

Regarding tax exemptions, publishers and book importers are exempt from the VAT which is 16%.

Book-related taxation measures and legal regulations (chapter 3)

The taxation measures and regulations that govern the publishing and book market are crucial aspects that directly impact the publishing industry and book in any country. These procedures aim to regulate the sector, protect copyright, and encourage cultural and intellectual production. Having reviewed the reality of official cultural institutions and their role in the publishing industry, in Chapter One and the book-related public policies, in Chapter Two, in this chapter, we will review the relationship between taxes and the publishing industry in the Arab countries surveyed. The tax file is one of the most important elements that illustrate the relationship between Arab governments and the publishing industry, as taxes can have both positive and negative effects on the industry and its workforce.

Here are some key points summarizing the taxation measures and regulations that govern the publishing and book market:

• Value Added Tax (VAT): In many countries, books, especially educational and academic books, are exempted from VAT, or are subject to lower tax rates compared with other goods.
• Special tax exemptions: Many countries provide tax exemptions for publishers and authors of educational or academic books. These exemptions are designed to promote publishing in important cultural and knowledge-based areas. The exemption or reduction of taxes cover the raw materials used in publishing, such as paper, inks, and printing supplies.
• Customs facilities: Some countries offer customs facilitation for the import of raw materials or books, especially those used in book production and distribution. Exempting raw materials, like paper and ink, from customs duties is a policy to support publishers and reduce production costs.
• Profit taxes on publishers: Like other businesses, publishers are subject to profit taxes. However, some countries levy reduced taxes on small or independent publishers. In certain countries, authors’ profits are exempted from taxes if their books pertain to education or popular culture.

Many studies on the publishing industry have highlighted the need to support publishers through tax exemptions and reductions. For instance, the 2020 APA Report pointed that Arab publishers suffer from the continuous increase of financial fees and taxes imposed by government policies. The Report emphasized that Arab governments need to reform the laws governing tax obligations for the publishing industry. It stated, “Arab governments must work to reduce or eliminate these taxes, as Arab countries do not produce the materials for book production. The advantages of such reduction or elimination will far exceed the disadvantages incurred by Arab governments.”

The significant impact of tax regulations on the publishing industry is reflected in the international conventions and conventions sponsored by the UNESCO and the IPA, such as the Florence Agreement of 1950 ³ and the Nairobi Protocol, adopted in 1976 ⁴, which facilitated the import and export of educational, cultural, and pedagogical materials among the member states that signed the Conventions.

The need for a taxation reform that includes the publishing industry is crucial to ensure its resilience and growth. Without these reforms, the industry will continue to be fragile and susceptible to decline, especially considering the economic, health, and political crises that the Arab region has faced over the past decade.

Viewing the publishing industry as a normal commercial business, without considering its unique characteristics and vital role in shaping cultural and social indicators, can adversely affect various educational, pedagogical, and cultural aspects, which would, over time, negatively impact the whole categories and components of society.

Taxation measures and regulations are crucial for the development of the publishing and book market, while tax exemptions support publishers and reduce the costs. Regulatory laws protect intellectual property rights and ensure that the sector functions in an ethical and legal way. Together, these policies promote the dissemination of knowledge and culture in society, but the challenges such as censorship and piracy continue to pose barriers to the sustainable growth of this sector.

Taxation measures for the publishing industry

First – Taxes on print books

All Arab countries surveyed, except Kuwait, levy general taxes on books and book industry. The taxes levied on the publishing industry vary; in some Arab countries, like Jordan, they include income tax, which ranges from 20% to 35%, depending on the size of the company and the profits generated. The general sales tax, which was introduced in 2018, can be as high as 16% and is levied on all goods and services, including books and printed materials, although there are some exceptions for educational and environmental publications. There are also the customs duties on imports, such as the import of books, paper, ink, etc.

In terms of taxes, publishers are treated like any commercial company licensed by government departments. In Syria, for instance, Decision No. 84 issued by the MoI defines publishing houses as commercial companies that are subject to corporate taxes, and, therefore, they must comply with the regulations and laws applicable to companies in Syria. This includes the net profit taxes, which are levied as percentages specified in Syrian tax laws, ranging from 14% to 28%, depending on the company’s size and sales volume.

According to tax regulations in the Arab countries surveyed, tax authorities provide exemptions exclusively for educational textbooks, such as university and school curricula and some educational materials. This measure is part of the efforts to promote educational support policies. These countries do not levy customs duties on books and publications to foster and encourage cultural development.

The issue of high customs duties on the raw materials used in the publishing industry, such as paper and printing ink, is particularly pronounced due to the lack of local production of these materials.

Raw materials are not exempted from customs duties, which range from 5% to 10% in the surveyed countries, which increases the costs of books, printing, and binding.

Arab countries that levy VAT on books can be divided into two categories. Jordan, Yemen, Palestine, and the Sultanate of Oman levy additional taxes, though they offer certain exemptions that reduce the tax due based on the nature of the books being taxed.

Countries such as Lebanon, Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Tunisia, Kuwait, and Sudan do not levy additional taxes on books. However, exemptions may be granted by the General Tax Authority based on the type and nature of the book. For instance, school or educational textbooks and certain historical books may be exempt from taxes. The applicable tax rate can vary depending on the type of contract and the terms of rights associated with the book.

Second – Taxes on digital books

In recent years, advances in technology have led to a significant increase in the publication and sales of digital and audiobooks, making them an essential part of the global publishing industry. For instance, forecasts suggest that the market for audiobooks worldwide will grow by 27% over the next five years.

In the Arab world, there are no studies or accurate statistics regarding digital books, the studies of which are missing in the publishing-related research. However, some press reports suggest that the percentage of digital books compared with print books is still relatively small. Some reports estimate that digital books account for 1-5% of the total book market in Arab countries.

This percentage varies significantly from one country to another. Countries with advanced technological infrastructures, such as those in the Gulf region, witness a greater increase in the proportion of e-books compared with countries with weaker infrastructure. Overall, the e-book market is still emerging and has potential for growth and expansion.

Since the e-book sector is new and weak, some Arab countries have no regulations to levy taxes on digital books, while other Arab countries, that aim to regulate the modern digital economy, view the e-book market as a component of the e-economy. For instance, Morocco and Oman have started levying taxes on digital books.

For example, Survey participants indicate that Morocco does not view digital books as a significant market, and, thus, does not have e-book tax regulations in place. However, in practice, a 10% tax is levied on digital books because banks categorize them as an IT service, which ultimately increases the e-book price.

In the Sultanate of Oman, paper books are exempted from VAT, while a 5% tax is levied on digital books, as they are classified as e-goods.

The Arab countries that have not enacted e-economy-related laws yet, have opportunities to support and invest in a new and emerging culture- and education-related sector by providing certain facilities and tax exemptions for digital books, which are not just digital goods or services.

It’s worth mentioning that all responses to the Survey indicate no changes are expected in the near future regarding the tax system of books and for all forms of the publishing industry; there is currently no new draft law. Reform the taxation system could potentially include books, offering necessary exemptions in response to the deterioration of the publishing industry due to economic crises, or to assist in the recovery from COVID-19 and its economic repercussions.

Table 10 – Taxes on print books and the publishing sector in the Arab region

Table 11 – Taxes on digital books

International Conventions and the Promotion of Cultural and Academic Exchange

Many UNESCO-sponsored international conventions have been established to promote cultural and academic exchange, aiming to create a legal framework for cooperation among member states, encouraging them to facilitate cultural and academic exchange, support education and learning, and promote free access to information and knowledge. Among the most significant conventions of those is the Florence Agreement (1950) and its supplementary Nairobi Protocol (1976), the goal of which is to facilitate the movement of books and cultural materials, support scientific research, and enhance education and culture.

The Florence Agreement, also known as the Agreement on the Importation of Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Materials, is an international agreement adopted by the UNESCO in 1950. The aim of the Convention is to promote cultural and scientific exchange among countries by eliminating tariff and tax barriers on the importation of educational, scientific, and cultural materials.

The Agreement specifies the materials subject to the removal of customs duties; they are:

• Books, magazines, and periodicals.
• Works of art (such as paintings and sculptures).
• Educational and scientific films.
• Audiovisual materials.
• Scientific instruments used in research or education.

The Arab countries surveyed are classified under three categories: the first consists of the countries that joined and signed the Agreement but did not ratify it; the second includes the countries that joined and fully ratified the Agreement; the third comprises the countries that neither joined nor ratified the agreement.

There is a legal distinction between joining (signing) and ratification. Signing alone does not obligate the signatory state to comply with the agreement or to change its domestic laws to align with the agreement’s provisions.

Official ratification, on the other hand, mandates that ratifying countries to adjust their domestic laws to ensure compatibility with the agreement’s provisions with a view to prevent any conflicts between the international obligations and the domestic laws.

After more than twenty-five years, UNESCO added an Additional Protocol to the Florence Agreement, known as the Nairobi Protocol, in 1976. The Protocol expanded the scope of the Agreement to include audiovisual materials such as films, videotapes, and digital content, as well as various educational and printing materials used in the book industry. The Protocol aims to facilitate international trade in educational, scientific, and cultural materials by providing exemptions from customs duties and prohibiting restrictions on such imports. This is particularly important for promoting the free flow of information, education, and cultural exchange in the Arab world and beyond.

Among the Arab countries studied, only the Sultanate of Oman and Tunisia have ratified the Protocol. Egypt has signed the Protocol but has not ratified it. The other Arab countries surveyed have not signed the Protocol as of the time of this study.

International publishing-related agreements are crucial because they position the ratifying countries within a supportive international framework for the publishing industry. Exemptions from customs duties for publishers help in the reduction of costs, especially for imported raw materials. This is particularly important since most of the Arab countries surveyed do not produce the majority of the raw materials used in the publishing industry. Thus, there is both a material and cultural interest in complying with the provisions of international agreements, which will have a positive impact on the entire publishing, book, and printing industry.

Table 12 – International conventions regarding the importation of the materials used in the publishing industry

Taxes on Imports

It is known that the Arab region does not produce paper, inks, and many of the raw materials and printing machines that go into the book industry. Therefore, the Arab market depends on imports, which makes the publishing and printing sectors under the control of importers, vulnerable to fluctuations of global prices, and effects of exchange rates of foreign currencies, like the dollar and the euro. Consequently, this situation impacts the economic feasibility for publishers and increases the costs for readers.

Certain raw materials are essential to the publishing industry, especially the printing paper. Therefore, previous international agreements have recognized the significance of these raw materials and specified that imports of printing paper should be exempted from customs duties.

The survey results indicated that most Arab countries levy taxes on the import of printing paper used in the publishing industry. This, no doubt, will have a negative impact on the industry as a whole, limiting the opportunities for publishers and restricting their access to various local and international markets due to the high cost of raw materials that are subject to customs duties. Moreover, these duties do not offer a profit margin that would enable publishers to expand their businesses and publications.

The government’s perspective on the publishing industry, as shown by the public policies we examined in the previous chapter and the tax policies imposed on publishers, limits the publisher’s freedom in two ways: they are neither regarded as part of the industrial sector nor recognized as part of the cultural sector.

Some of the Arab countries surveyed have signed and ratified the Florence Agreement, making it valid, but local tax laws still levy customs duties that overburden publishers, authors, and readers, alike.

Ensuring the implementation of exemptions and specifying an article exempting publishers explicitly from customs duties and activating international agreements, is a joint responsibility among the relevant executive authorities in Arab countries, such as the ministries of finance and culture, and tax and customs authorities.

Table 13 – Customs duties on the publishing industry in the Arab world

Legal regulations for paper books

First – Pricing mechanisms

Pricing mechanisms for paperback books involve the procedures and factors that help regulate the market. Consequently, book pricing is determined by various factors and mechanisms. There isn’t just one method for book pricing; instead, these mechanisms vary based on the market, the publisher, and the type of book.

The major factors and mechanisms that typically influence book pricing include production costs, book market (i.e., the demand for books in general), book type, government policies, taxes, and price control. In some countries, laws or government regulations may establish minimum or maximum prices for books to ensure that they are affordable by the different social categories.

In the Arab countries surveyed, there are no laws or government regulations that set price limits for books, except for the Sultanate of Oman, which sets prices based on a 12% VAT and a 12% customs duty if they are from outside the European Union.

Having Customs duties on raw materials and other trade taxes, such as income and value-added taxes, without any exemptions or government facilities that consider the unique nature of publishers and the social and cultural significance of their work, as well as the absence or lack of support from official institutions, significantly impact book pricing. As a result, books are priced regardless of the average income in some of the Arab countries surveyed. This also adversely affects readers’ purchasing power and the profit margins necessary for publishers to sustain and thrive in their industry.

Second – Book selling regulation

Selling regulation is an economic concept that involves the setting of frameworks or controls for pricing and distribution of products and services in markets. This concept is related to the policies and procedures designed to ensure that the products are sold at fair and consistent prices, protecting them from speculation and undue fluctuations.

These frames usually take the form of regulations or price controls implemented by governments or market regulators. They may include several mechanisms:

• The purpose of setting maximum and minimum prices is to protect publishers, particularly small ones, which is supposed to be done by the regulatory authorities; when setting maximum and minimum prices for goods and services, they ensure that prices are not excessively high or too low that they may jeopardize quality or competition.
• Consumer protection mechanisms that imply selling regulation, which may include enforcing consumer protection laws to ensure transparent and fair pricing.
• Antitrust mechanisms to prevent large publishers from having complete control over the market and setting monopolistic prices.
• The taxes and fees levied by the official institutions of the Ministry of Finance, based on recommendations from the Council of Ministers. These can be part of the selling regulations, as they influence the final price of goods.

The objective of regulating book selling is to provide a means by which executive authorities protect consumers and regulate markets to ensure stability. Some countries use mechanisms for book selling, or one of them, to set book pricing according to price-control laws with a view to promoting access to knowledge at reasonable prices, preventing excessive price speculation, and protecting small businesses and publishers.

An examination of the policies of official institutions in the Arab countries surveyed reveals that none of them utilizes book selling regulation mechanisms, according to the survey responses. Therefore, book prices are not controlled and both consumers and small publishers are not protected. Consequently, large publishers dominate the market, leading to higher book prices for consumers and, at times, narrower profit margins. This situation contributes to an overall instability in the market.

Third – Preferential postal tariffs

One of the measures taken by official institutions in some countries to regulate the book market is the approach of reduced postage fees, or even exemption from such fees. Postal and shipping institutions offer discounts or exemptions to publishers and bookstores to support the book market. These discounts are typically intended to enhance access to educational and cultural resources.

In the Arab countries surveyed, official institutions in Morocco, Yemen, and Sudan provide discounts and exemptions from shipping and postage fees for books. While in the other Arab countries there is no book-related mechanism to control the market; this means that no positive role is played in the book to reduce the costs, and approach books as special products and not like other commercial goods.

Table 14 – Legal measures for digital books

Legal and regulatory measures for e-commerce

The legal and regulatory measures implemented by official institutions to monitor e-commerce and financial transactions online are designed to regulate online commercial activities, protect consumers, and ensure that companies comply with specific legal frameworks. The most notable of these legal frameworks include:

• Consumer protection laws: Many countries apply laws to protect consumer rights in e-commerce, aiming to protect users from fraud.
• Privacy and personal data protection laws: Privacy laws are put in place to protect privacy, which obliges the companies that use e-commerce and marketing platforms to protect user data and report any violations that occur during a product use.
• E-commerce tax legislation: They have been enacted in many countries. Usually, VAT is applied to the digital goods and services sold online, especially for foreign companies targeting the local market through e-commerce.

E-commerce tax legislation is typically enacted by governments independently of cybercrime laws, as it regulates market practices and creates opportunities for direct marketing without intermediaries. This sometimes leads to lower prices compared with traditional stores.

Arab countries can be classified into three categories regarding book e-commerce. The first category comprises Morocco, Jordan, Egypt, and Syria. In these countries, book e-commerce is governed by the general laws that regulate all forms of e-commerce and establish the legal frameworks for electronic transactions. These laws typically include clear definitions of electronic transactions, e-contracts, and e-payment methods.

The second category includes the countries that incorporate e-commerce regulatory measures within their anti-cybercrime laws, yet have not established specific regulatory frameworks for e-commerce, including online book sales. This absence of dedicated legislation results in significant gaps that fail to adequately address e-commerce concerns. While these laws may protect users from fraud and some violations during online financial transactions, they are insufficient for properly regulating and advancing the sector to the standards of conventional markets. Countries like Oman, Yemen, and Tunisia exemplify this model.

The final category includes the Arab countries that have not yet enacted any e-commerce-related laws. As a result, the market remains unregulated, leaving users vulnerable to various legal and commercial violations. The countries in this category are Sudan, Lebanon, Tunisia, Palestine, and Kuwait.

The need to regulate e-commerce is increasing as this type of trade is expanding both globally and regionally. E-commerce presents many opportunities for the publishing sector, especially when there is legal and regulatory support that protects the interests of both publishers and readers. Addressing both the criminal legal and commercial aspects is essential for investment in this type of trade.

Appendix 3 – Taxation measures and book market regulation rules

In this part of the Research, survey participants were asked about taxation measures in the countries where they operate. This part examines the availability of tax facilities and exemptions that assist publishers in their work and contribute to market stability.

The Research also examines the international agreements that promote cultural and knowledge exchange and whether the Arab countries where the participants work have joined these agreements. If yes, the Study asks whether they comply with the international agreements’ outcomes and provisions or whether that is mere ink on paper.

Finally, participants were asked about the regulations governing e-commerce in their respective countries. Below are the responses and topics discussed per country.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The Jordanian government levies general taxes on the traditional paper book industry, including income taxes and sales taxes (VAT). Additionally, there is a 16% customs duty on imported books and raw materials used in book production, such as paper and ink. Tax exemptions are applied only when the associations affiliated with the MoC purchase taxable items, like ink, paper, etc.; in such cases, they do not pay VAT. When participants were asked if there were any expectations or a timeframe for changes to the book-related taxation situation, the responses were negative.

In the Kingdom of Jordan, the government does not levy any additional taxes on e-books and their trade.

For the international conventions on facilitating the exchange of educational and cultural materials, Jordan has joined the Florence Agreement, but has not ratified it through parliamentary channels and has not incorporated it into domestic laws and regulations. Additionally, the Jordanian government has never acceded to the Nairobi Protocol of the Agreement.

Regarding book-related legal regulations, such as pricing, book selling regulation, and postal tariff reduction, the Jordanian government does not take any of these measures that would regulate and stabilize the book market.

For e-commerce, the Jordanian government regulates online commercial transactions, but it has got no specific regulations for books and book market.

Reforming the tax system, offering exemptions and facilities, and joining international agreements would strengthen the print and e-book industry. This represents an opportunity to help the publishing sector address the challenges it has faced in recent years, including the COVID-19 pandemic, the rising prices of raw materials, and the overall decline of citizens’ purchasing power.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The Egyptian government institutions levy income tax on both paper and electronic books, while exempting both from all types of VAT.

Although the Egyptian government joined the Florence Agreement and ratified it through parliamentary channels in 1952, and joined the Nairobi Protocol in 1981 without ratification, the financial authorities continue to levy taxes on the raw materials used to produce books and other educational and cultural products, some of which are provided for in the international agreement.

Regarding the paper book-related legal regulations, the Egyptian government does not implement any of the above-mentioned measures relating to pricing, book selling regulation, and postal tariff reductions.

The Egyptian government regulates online commercial transactions, but does not designate any articles or provisions for e-books.

Implementing the provisions of the Florence Agreement and integrating them into local laws would benefit the publishing industry, lower the costs for both publishers and consumers, and enhance the overall publishing market.

Republic of Yemen

Yemen’s official financial authorities levy various taxes on print books, including income taxes and administrative fees for the establishment of the Heritage and Cultural Development Fund. They also provide a 3% exemption of VAT for print books.

 No taxes or fees are levied on e-books because they are not covered by the tax laws and measures in the Yemeni law.

Yemen has not joined any international agreements or protocols that facilitate cultural and knowledge exchange among countries.

The Yemeni government levies taxes on most of the raw materials used in the publishing industry, such as paper, ink, and machinery, as well as on media and educational supplies imported from abroad.

Concerning the legal regulations for paper books, the Yemeni government only provides reduced postal tariffs at pricing and book selling regulation, as books are exempted from shipping and postal fees.

While the Yemeni government does not have specific laws on e-commerce and online financial transactions, it has issued a few regulatory decisions that pertain to the e-book market.

The publishing industry in Yemen faces numerous significant challenges due to the country’s political and economic crises. However, the Research highlights various gaps and regulatory decisions that should be taken by the Yemeni government, because, if taken, they would enhance the publishing industry and save it from complete collapse. These decisions include tax reductions, joining international agreements, and granting exemptions from customs duties on the materials used in the industry.

Republic of Sudan

The Sudanese government levies general taxes, but only income tax is levied on paper books; the VAT is not levied on books. E-books are currently exempted from both general and Specific taxes.

Throughout the history, Sudanese governments have never joined any international agreements, including the Florence Agreement and Nairobi Protocol. They levy customs duties on the raw materials used in book production, as well as on educational and cultural supplies, with no exemptions available for these duties.

As for the legal regulations for paper books, the Sudanese government only allows for the reduction of postage rates at pricing and book selling regulation, because books are exempted from shipping and postage fees. However, regarding e-commerce and online financial transactions, the Sudanese government has not issued any laws or regulatory decisions pertaining to e-commerce.

The current situation in Sudan is marked by internal warring, severe economic crises, and widespread displacement of citizens. In this context, the prospect of reforming or regulating the book market—whether for printed or electronic materials—seems far-fetched. However, the publishing industry is in a desperate need of such measures to avoid potential extinction. Without regulation and support, there is a real risk that publishers may cease the production of both printed and electronic books altogether.

Syrian Arab Republic

The Syrian government levies general taxes on publishers and, like many other Arab countries, treats them as private businesses. Publishers are subject to a progressive taxation system that ranges from 10% to 28% on their net profits, which includes profits from the sale of commercial assets. Additionally, there is a local administration tax that varies between 4% and 10%, depending on the administrative region. A temporary reconstruction fee of 10% is also levied on all direct and indirect taxes.

VAT is not applied to either paper or electronic books. Based on the survey responses, changes to the current taxation system for books are not anticipated.

Syria joined the Florence Agreement in 1979, which was ratified through parliamentary channels the following year; however, the country has not joined the Nairobi Protocol. Though Syria has joined the Agreement, the Syrian government continues to levy taxes on the materials used in the publishing industry, such as paper, ink, and machinery. These taxes range from 5.1% to 40%, depending on the imported item, and there are no exemptions for publishers in the tax laws and regulations.

Regarding the book-related legal regulations, such as pricing, book selling regulation, and reduced postal fees, the Syrian government does not implement any of these measures to regulate and stabilize the book market.

Finally, regarding e-commerce and financial transactions over the Internet, Law No. 3 of 2014 governs e-commerce and online financial transactions, establishing the legal frameworks for these activities. This legislation includes precise definitions for electronic transactions, electronic contracts, and electronic payments. However, it does not provide any specific provisions for the e-book market.

The taxes and fees levied by the Syrian government on the publishing industry contribute significantly to the challenges faced by this sector, hindering its growth and recovery after more than thirteen years of crises. If the Syrian authorities are genuinely interested in developing a recovery plan for the publishing industry, they must address the book-related tax regulations and legal regulations, without which, there is no chance of recovery for the publishing sector.

Kuwait

In Kuwait, official institutions do not levy any general or specific taxes on books, either digital or print. The book industry is tax-free. According to respondents’ answers, there is no law levying a tax on books.

Kuwait has not joined the Florence Agreement or the Nairobi Protocol. However, the Kuwaiti government exempts the imports of paper, ink, the raw materials used in the book industry, and certain educational and cultural materials and supplies from taxes.

The Kuwaiti government does not enforce book-related legal regulations or mechanisms, such as pricing mechanisms, book selling regulation, or reduced postal tariffs.

Up to the Survey time, the Kuwaiti government had not enacted any laws or regulations on e-commerce and online financial transactions.

There is no doubt that the tax exemptions granted by the Kuwaiti government provide numerous opportunities for the publishing industry. These exemptions can have an even greater impact if they are supported by a series of measures and regulations aimed at both print and e-book markets.

Lebanese Republic

The Lebanese government levies income taxes on paper books and collects them from publishers, as per the Income Tax Law enacted in 1958. However, it does not levy any special or additional taxes on books. Article 17 of Law 379/2001 (VAT Law) exempts books and similar publications—such as magazines, newspapers, the paper or cardboard used for writing or printing, newsprint in rolls or sheets, and the ink prepared for printing – from VAT.

E-books are not subject to any taxes, and the Lebanese authorities have not issued any tax regulations regarding e-books.

Lebanon has not joined the Florence Agreement or its Nairobi Protocol; however, it does exempt imports of the paper used for book printing from customs duties and grants a full discount on the machinery utilized in the book industry.

Lebanese official institutions do not have any specific legal regulations or mechanisms for books, such as pricing mechanisms, book selling regulation, or reduced postal tariffs.

The Lebanese governments have not enacted any laws or regulations governing e-commerce and online financial transactions in Lebanon.

The exemptions granted by the Lebanese government to the paper book industry play an important role in the sector’s development. However, they are not enough to ensure its growth, especially given the recent economic and political conditions in Lebanon.

If the Lebanese authorities support the publishing industry, there are significant opportunities for it, especially since Lebanon is regarded as a major center for printing and book production in the Arab world.

Kingdom of Morocco

In Morocco, income tax is the only tax applied to traditional books, while e-books are not subject to any tax.

Moroccan laws exempt traditional books from VAT. Article 7 of Law No. 85 states that all books, publications, and all costs of printing and delivery in connection with them are exempt from VAT.

Morocco joined the Florence Agreement in 1968 and ratified it through parliamentary channels, but has not joined its Nairobi Protocol.

Moroccan official institutions levy customs duties on the raw materials used in book production. For instance, a rate ranging from 2.5% to 17.5% of the import value per kilogram of paper is applied, depending on its grammage and composition. Media equipment and ink are also subject to taxes, with rates ranging between 2.5% and 40% based on the import value per kilogram.

The paper and ink used for book printing do not qualify for the reduced tax unless the importer specifies the volume of the paper to be used in book printing when ordering it, which is practically impossible, as shown by the respondents.

In Morocco, official institutions do not intervene in the pricing mechanisms or book selling regulation of books. They only provide reduced postal tariffs for book transport and shipping.

Moroccan authorities regulate e-commerce and online financial transactions. Many laws have been enacted to protect users’ personal information and regulate online financial transactions and payments. Consumer protection laws also extend to e-commerce.

There is dire need to improve the regulations of customs duties on the materials and supplies used in the book industry. This is also crucial for the development of the publishing sector; it lowers the costs for both publishers and consumers, increases profit margins, and, ultimately, stabilizes the book market and industry.

Republic of Tunisia

The Tunisian government levies general taxes on traditional books, with some exceptions for cultural books, while e-books are not subject to general tax laws. In addition to the general taxes, Tunisian authorities levy a 12% VAT on the materials used to produce paper.

The Republic of Tunisia has not joined any international agreements, such as the Florence Agreement and Nairobi Protocol.

Tunisian financial institutions levy customs duties on paper and ink, which vary based on the country of origin. However, exemptions are granted for media and educational equipment imported from outside Tunisia.

Regarding the book-related legal regulations, the Tunisian government intervenes in book pricing mechanisms by providing “compensation” for paper costs when books with cultural content are produced.

The Tunisian authorities have not enacted any laws or regulations regarding e-commerce and online financial transactions.

In general, the book industry in Tunisia is experiencing an acceptable growth. To further enhance this development, the Tunisian authorities can take several measures, such as reducing or eliminating customs duties on the materials used in the book industry. Joining international agreements that facilitate cultural and educational exchange could also help lower many customs duties, and, ultimately reduce costs for both publishers and consumers.

Sultanate of Oman

The Omani government levies general taxes on traditional books, as well as a 5% VAT, according to the Executive Regulations of the Value Added Tax Law No. 24/2004.

No government taxes are applied to e-books.

The Omani government joined both the Florence Agreement (1977) and the Nairobi Protocol (1977), but has not ratified them through parliamentary channels, and the provisions of these agreements have not yet been adopted by national laws.

The Omani authorities levy customs duties on the imported materials used in the book industry, such as paper and ink (5%), along with media and educational equipment and supplies.

The Omani authorities do not implement any book-related legal regulations or mechanisms, such as pricing mechanisms, book selling regulation, and reduced postal tariffs.

The Omani government regulates e-commerce and online financial transactions from a criminal legal perspective through the Anti-Cybercrime Law; however, there is currently no law that economically regulates e-commerce.

Ratifying and implementing international agreements would lower costs and book prices, particularly if customs exemptions were applied to the materials used in book production.

The book-related legal mechanisms, including pricing mechanisms and book selling regulation, would upgrade the quality of Omani books and broaden their reach, locally and internationally.

State of Palestine

The Palestinian authorities levy general taxes on traditional books, along with a 16% VAT. This tax applies only to paper books, while electronic books are not subject to any official tax.

The Palestinian authorities have not signed the Florence Agreement or the Nairobi Protocol.

The Palestinian authorities levy a 16% customs duty on the materials used in the book industry, including paper, ink, and media and educational equipment.

It is worth mentioning that taxes are paid to the Israeli occupation at the crossings, and not to the Palestinian Authority. Subsequently, settlements are made between the occupation and the Palestinian Authority.

According to the survey response, the occupation prohibits the entry of books from Lebanon and Syria without prior permission. An Israeli citizen must submit an import application, along with a list of the books and the authors’ names. Then the books are allowed in, but some books might be rejected. Additionally, the crossing officer may inflate the invoice amount at his discretion, leading to higher taxes. Shipping costs for a box of books from Syria and Lebanon can reach up to $100. Lastly, there is an extra 13% tax on colored books for both adults and children, referred to as the “Hebrew alphabet tax.”

The Palestinian authorities do not have legal regulations or mechanisms for books, such as pricing mechanisms, book selling regulation, and reduced postal tariffs.

The Palestinian authorities have yet to issue any laws or regulations pertaining to e-commerce and online financial transactions.

The status quo of the State of Palestine and its subordination to the Israeli occupation which controls tax collection and customs crossings, makes the prospect of developing the publishing sector extremely difficult.

The high taxes levied on all materials used in the book industry, combined with the Palestinian authorities’ failure to implement any book-related legal regulations or mechanisms, significantly hinder the growth and stability of the book market and industry.

International Standards, Book Identifiers and Classification (chapter 4)

The publishing industry, encompassing both traditional and electronic formats, utilizes various international systems to organize and classify printed or digital content, or to organize and classify the creative individuals who contribute to this sector.

Most countries, including the Arab ones surveyed, use those international standard systems to organize and classify the works published in each country. The major systems of those are:

• The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique and individual international standard number assigned to individually published books and materials.
• The International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is a unique international standard number assigned to serial publications such as magazines, newspapers, and scientific journals. It consists of 8 digits and is used to identify periodicals that are published regularly.
• The International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) is a global standard number assigned to individuals or legal entities who contribute to creative works, such as authors, directors, and artists, aiming to standardize personal identity across various platforms.

There is also, a book classification which is used to identify a book’s subject or genre, facilitating easier access for readers and libraries. This classification can be according to the book’s content—such as literature, science, history, philosophy, etc.—or according to the audience targeted, like children, youth, or seniors. Such classifications help organize books on shelves in libraries and bookstores, as well as in their electronic marketing.

These International systems appeared in the 1970s and are still in use across most countries. In the Arab countries surveyed, these systems are used and publishers are required to place the numbers associated with these systems —ISBN and ISSN—on all their publications, whether print or electronic.

Official institutions affiliated with ministries of culture provide publishers with NDNs free of charge. The only exception is in Palestine, where the National Center for International Standard Numbering at Al-Quds University charges approximately $5.50 for each number. In each country, the government agency is the sole provider of book identification data, catering exclusively to publishers and publishing professionals. These agencies require that any book submitted for registration or legal deposit must include an NDN issued by the responsible government agency.

Legal deposit in Arab countries

Deposit is a legal regulation, according to which publishers or authors are required to submit copies of their published works—such as books, periodicals, audiovisual materials, etc.—to a government body or a designated national institution, typically the national library, with a view to preserving the national cultural heritage and organizing literary and artistic works within the country.

There are two types of national deposits that publishers are required to comply with one at least: the national legal deposit and the regional or local legal deposit. For both types, publishers must deposit copies at one of the government agencies affiliated with the MoC. National libraries, such as the NLK and the National Library of Morocco, are often the designated depositories.

The concept of legal deposit at the regional level extends beyond just the national level, which typically involves depositing works at national libraries or central government agencies. In some cases, publishers or authors are also required to deposit copies of their published works at regional libraries, local institutions, universities, or local councils. The purpose of this requirement is to promote the conservation of local heritage across the various geographical regions of the country.

Most of the Arab countries surveyed, make legal deposits by publishers obligatory at the national level, while legal deposits at the local level (such as governorates and municipalities) are almost absent, with the exception of Yemen, where legal deposits are made at the branches of the Publications Directorate in the governorates.

Once publishers receive the deposit numbers and have their books printed, they must deposit several copies at official institutions. The number of copies varies by country, typically ranging from two to five copies of each book. If a book is printed and the copies are not deposited, a fine will be imposed on the publisher for delaying the legal deposit process.

Though these regulations are in place across all the countries surveyed, some responses indicated that publishers may not be fully committed to the issue of standard book numbers. For instance, in Morocco, survey respondents estimated that about “one-fifth of publications annually evade legal deposit requirements. Moreover, there is the issue of using the same legal NDN for many titles (sometimes this amounts to ten titles); which makes the identification of books very difficult”.

The legal deposit process and compliance with international regulations is a shared responsibility among publishers and the official bodies providing these services. Legal deposit, especially at the regional level, enhances the conservation of cultural heritage locally and offers greater opportunities for researchers and the public to access a diverse range of cultural publications. Consequently, regional deposit requirements might be part of the national legislation concerning publishing and media, helping, thereby, to conserve regional cultural identities.

Appendix 4 – Arab Countries and International Standards for Book Identification and Classification

Participants in this section were asked about the international standards adopted in their countries for the classification and conservation of books and publications, the official authority that issues and documents international deposit numbers (IDNs), and the legal book deposit and the procedures followed in each country. Below is a review of the countries surveyed:

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The ISBN Division at the National Library of Jordan is the body that provides book identification data, including ISBNs, which are provided to publishers freely. The National Library is the sole entity offering this service in Jordan. As for the legal deposit of books, it comes after the printing and publication; only one copy is deposited at the National Library. So, legal deposit of books in Jordan occurs at the national level only.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The NLA is the sole organization that provides identification data of books and publications. It provides ISBNs to Egyptian publishers freely, provided that they have fulfilled the requirements of obtaining local deposit numbers, such as submitting a summary of the book and a copy of its cover, and a photocopy of the author’s ID card, etc. Additionally, membership of the Egyptian Publishers Association is required.

As for legal deposit, the NLA requires publishers to deposit five hard copies and one electronic copy of their works at the NLA. Such deposit is applicable at the national level only; there is no legal deposit at the local or regional levels.

Republic of Sudan

The Literary and Artistic Works Authority and the National Library of Sudan provide identifiers of books and publications freely. Both institutions are government bodies affiliated with the MoC in Sudan.

For legal deposit of books, publishers are required by the MoC to deposit books legally at the National Library. This involves submitting three hard copies of each book, with no obligation to deposit books legally at the local level.

Republic of Yemen

Yemen is a unique case when it comes to the obligations of having book identification data; publishers are not required to abide by such obligations. However, the GAB is the only one that provides publishers with book identification data freely.

If a publisher wants to obtain book identification data, it must deposit two to five copies at the GAB and its branches in the Yemeni governorates. The legal deposit of books in Yemen is conducted at the local and national levels.

It is worth mentioning that the GAB in Yemen has ceased providing book identification data due to the ongoing conflict in the country. Thus, there is no governmental or non-governmental agency providing such services to Yemeni publishers. This situation causes significant technical challenges in documenting books and sharing them through fairs and e-markets.

Syrian Arab Republic

The Syrian Publishers Association (SPA) is the agency that provides ISBN service in Syria. This service is available exclusively to Syrian publishers and authors. To apply for an ISBN, the following documents are required: a copy of the publishing license, approval from the MoI for individual authors, a photocopy of the ID card for individual authors, an ISBN application form, a signed and stamped pledge, and complete information about the book to be given an ISBN.

Though the SPA is not officially affiliated with the Syrian government, it can be considered a semi-governmental entity; it is controlled by official government institutions, according to respondents’ answers.

The SPA offers this service to publishers  in return of USD 3.5. However, legal deposit laws in Syria require publishers to deposit three copies of their works either at the MoI or the SGOB, as well as three copies at the National Library. There is no legal deposit at the regional or local levels.

Kuwait

The NLK is the only body that provides identification data of books and publications freely. The NLK is a government body that is affiliated with the National Council for Culture, Arts and Literature.

Regarding legal deposit, according to the library’s decisions, publishers are required to deposit three copies of the book published at the NLK but are not required to deposit copies of books locally.

Lebanese Republic

The Lebanese ISBN Agency, associated with the MoC, is the only body that provides ISBNs for books and publications in Lebanon. It does that free of charge.

In Lebanon, publishers are required by the MoC to deposit five copies of their books at the Lebanese ISBN Agency. Legal deposit is required at the national level only, and not locally.

Kingdom of Morocco

The Moroccan Agency for International Standard Numbers is the only organization that provides identification data of books and publications. Affiliated with the National Library of the Kingdom of Morocco, the Agency offers its services free of charge to publishers across the country.

The Agency makes it mandatory for publishers to deposit three copies of each book at the national level, i.e. at the National Library. There is no obligation for local legal deposits.

Republic of Tunisia

The National Library of Tunisia is the only agency that provides identification data of books and publications freely to publishers. It is a government body affiliated with the Tunisian MoC.

Regarding legal deposit, publishers are required to deposit four copies at the Tunisian National Library, but they are not required to deposit copies of the books locally.

Sultanate of Oman

The Department of Publications and Publishing, which reports to the Omani MoI, provides identification data of books and publications freely and is the only body that provides these services in the Sultanate.

Publishers deposit five copies of each book issued with a deposit number from the Department of Publications and Publishing at the MoI at the national level, with no deposits at the regional level.

State of Palestine

The National Center for International Standard Numbering is the agency that provides book identification data. A fee of $5.50 is charged for this service. The Center was previously affiliated with the MoI, which was recently abolished.

Responsibilities are being transferred from the MoI to the Palestinian National Library, and the legal deposit of books and publications will be regulated later.

The Socioeconomic Environment of Books (chapter 5)

The concept of the socioeconomic environment of the book industry refers to the overall context that influences the book industry, including publishing, distribution, and reading, from both socioeconomic perspectives. This environment also shapes how the book sector is organized internally.

Therefore, we can define the socioeconomic environment as the context in which the book industry operates, influencing all its aspects, including the economic, social, and political factors.

In this chapter of the research, we will specifically examine the relationship between vocational education and training and the publishing industry, as well as the roles of civil society, trade unions, and professional associations within the publishing industry. Additionally, we will assess how effective these socioeconomic structures are in representing the interests of the publishing sector stakeholders in the Arab region.

These factors, along with those discussed in earlier chapters, determine the strength or weakness of the book industry in a country, impacting the availability, quality, and accessibility of books.

Vocational Training – Gaps and Complete Absence of Educational Institutions

Vocational training and human expertise are vital elements for developing and strengthening the publishing sector in any country or region. The publishing industry depends significantly on the efficiency of human skills and the resources available to execute the publication activities, including writing, editing, printing, distribution, and marketing.

Vocational training is designed to develop the necessary skills and capacities for the people working in the publishing industry, with a view to helping them enhance the production quality and boost efficiency. Vocational training includes several key aspects:

• Editing and proofreading, which involve training editors to develop skills of language and grammar proofreading and literary editing, which are essential for ensuring high-quality texts.
• Formatting and page layout, including the use of modern tools and technologies for book design and format.
• Project management and publishing, including copyright management, legal contracts, and training staff on project management and budgeting skills.
• Production and printing, including training on the various printing techniques, proper packaging and book conservation methods to ensure that they reach the market in good condition.

The publishing industry, like any other industry, relies on both human and technological resources and expertise. Therefore, it must have a place in vocational training programs offered by government educational and training institutions, civil society organizations, or the private sector. As mentioned in a previous chapter, the publishing industry can grow and develop only through incorporating it in the national plan for the advancement of national and local industries. Official institutions must recognize it as an industry that requires support mechanisms, including comprehensive vocational training across all its fields.

Vocational training in the publishing and book industry seems trivial in the Arab countries surveyed with the exception of Morocco and, to a lesser extent, Tunisia. The survey responses revealed that, with the exception of Morocco, there are no vocational training programs or courses in the trade, publishing, or distribution sectors in any Arab country.

Examining the Moroccan case is important for other Arab countries, as it offers valuable insights and lessons learned from integrating the publishing industry into university and academic education. Official education institutions have initiated a comprehensive reform project to teach this field.

The Book Business degree, which was established at the University of Casablanca in 2007, revived many hopes, but it did not live long; in 2020, it was degraded to the “Book Series” option within the French Literature degree, due to a low number of interested candidates.

The program provided specialized training that included both theoretical knowledge and practical and professional skills. Students were selected based on their academic performance after completing a core curriculum of two to four semesters of undergraduate study. The goal of the program was to train competent professionals who could keep up with the latest developments in the field of bookmaking and contribute to its revitalization and growth.

After two years of training (four semesters), graduates would have multiple skills; however, they would find it challenging to secure well-paid jobs in libraries/bookstores, as the profession of a librarian is not recognized. Many of them eventually abandoned the book business to find a job in telecommunications.

In 1995, the Faculty of Arts in Rabat introduced an applied diploma in the science and technology of the written word, which meant training on book business. This diploma, which was established at the Faculty of Arts in Rabat, lasted for two years and offered two specializations: publishing assistant and bookseller.

Tunisia’s efforts in the field of publishing and related professions deserve further attention and evaluation. The country has gone through many experiences to teach the professions of publishing, printing and marketing (a university diploma in printing and publishing, courses in book professions at the University of Sfax, vocational training programs, specialized multimedia institutes, etc.) and several specialized university degrees have been introduced, but there is need for a comprehensive and interconnected strategy to save the book professions.

Table 16 – The Status of Vocational Training for the Publishing Industry

Professional Associations and Unions

In the publishing industry, professional associations are essential for enhancing and regulating the practices of the trade and protecting the rights of members. These associations give voice to publishers, writers, translators, printers, and other professionals in the field. The significance of professional associations and unions is evident in several key areas, including:

• Professional associations protect the rights of workers in the publishing industry, including intellectual property rights, contract rights, and labor rights.
• Professional associations play a key role in establishing ethical and professional standards that ensure the quality of work and prevent unfair competition.
• Professional associations provide workshops and training courses to enhance the members’ skills in various fields, including editing, translation, printing, marketing, and digital publishing.
• Professional associations foster cultural interaction and exchange among various publishers, writers, and the reading community by organizing book fairs, literary forums, and cultural events. These associations promote the dissemination of culture and knowledge.
• Professional associations represent their members at the global forums and conferences relating to the publishing industry, including international book fairs and meetings of the world publishers’ associations.

Professional associations are the backbone for regulating the publishing industry and protecting the interests of those working in it. They contribute to its development and advancement amid economic and cultural challenges.

In the Arab countries surveyed, several professional associations and unions are connected to the publishing and book industry. These associations work to regulate and protect the rights of workers in this sector.  Here are some of the professional associations and unions related to the publishing and book industry:

First – Publishers’ Associations

There are two main types of publishing associations: national publishers associations and the Independent Publishers Association. Each of these types of associations plays a specific and important role in supporting, organizing, and representing the publishing industry. Their functions complement each other, as neither type replaces the other.

A – The national publishers’ association: It is a coalition of publishers from across the country, including both independent publishers and representatives of large publishers. This association acts as an umbrella organization for all publishing houses in the country and primarily focuses on regulating the local publishing industry.

Every one of the Arab countries surveyed has its own national publishers’ association, which reports to the government. The functions of these associations are largely similar across the region; their primary goals are to regulate the publishing industry and ensure compliance with both local and international laws concerning publishing and intellectual property rights.

Moreover, they engage in negotiation and consultation with the government agencies on the publishing-related policies, including taxes, customs tariffs, and cultural policies. The association represents the publishers in the significant issues affecting the industry.

The roles of national associations include organizing book fairs, representing publishers at international conferences and fairs, collaborating with other national associations, and fostering cooperation among publishers at local, regional, and international levels.

An analysis of the status of the national associations in Arab countries, as reflected in the responses, reveals some common issues faced by associations of publishers. Many of these associations are subservient to governments and political authorities, which diminishes their effectiveness in defending the rights of publishers and representing their interests to the government and relevant ministries. As a result, their role has shifted from advocating for publishers’ rights to taking on a supervisory role, and, at times, even a repressive one.

Some of these associations are facing ineffectiveness and a decline in capabilities and resources, which has diminished their role. The absence of these associations limits publishers’ opportunities to collaborate with Arab governments and marginalizes the publishing industry as a whole. It is essential to revitalize the work of these associations and improve the transparency of their mechanisms, considering their importance and the benefits they bring to the publishing industry and its regulation in all its aspects.

B – The Independent Publishers Association: It is a group of independent publishers that operate without the support of government or large corporations. This association focuses on supporting small and independent publishers, allowing them to pursue their work free from the influence of major financial backers or government entities. While their resources may be limited, they enjoy the flexibility to choose which projects to publish. As a result, they often handle unconventional or critical literary and intellectual materials.

These organizations generally advocate for independent publishing by representing the interests of independent publishers, who often compete with larger publishers that receive government or commercial support.

These associations can play a crucial role in protecting the interests of independent publishers. They work to defend these interests against government agencies or large corporations that may try to control the publishing industry or implement policies that could harm independent publishers.

In short: the Independent Publishers Association is dedicated to supporting and representing small independent publishers as they face significant challenges. In contrast, the National Publishers Association acts as an overall regulatory agency that defends the interests of the entire publishing industry on the national level.

The Independent Publishers Association is largely absent from most of the Arab countries studied, with the exception of one independent group in Lebanon, known as Publishers for the Profession, and an informal, unorganized association called the Association of Young Publishers in Morocco. There are no formal associations for independent publishers in most Arab countries, which results in weak representation of small independent publishers. Additionally, the lack of laws protecting these publishers leaves them vulnerable and weak.

Also, there are no specialized digital publishing associations in the Arab countries studied. Such associations aim to develop and support digital publishing while organizing training courses to enhance the skills in the field. They focus on promoting electronic publishing and assisting digital publishers in achieving growth and innovation. Notably, several emerging institutions dedicated to publishing and content have appeared in various Arab countries, including Tunisia. These institutions are supported by the Tunis International Center for Digital Cultural Economy, which is affiliated with the MoC.

The existence of such associations is essential for the expansion and diversification of the publishing industry. They help make the industry more independent, allowing for greater freedom in selecting titles and publications. The associations also ensure that publishers have genuine representation to defend their interests against large publishers and entities that depend on government support. This could lead to a more balanced and diverse publishing landscape, fostering fair competition among all participants, regardless of their size and the support they receive.

Second – Writers Unions

Writers Unions are professional organizations that represent writers at the national level. Typically, they are independent bodies that serve and support the members across various literary and cultural fields. A union’s role differs from one Arab country to another, depending on the local systems and laws. However, there are some common functions that the national writers’ unions perform in many countries, which include the following:

• Defending writers’ rights by ensuring that intellectual property rights are respected. The union guarantees that writers receive their financial and moral rights arising from the publication and exploitation of their work.
• Enhancing freedom of expression: Writers unions often play a pivotal role in protecting and promoting freedom of expression and literary creation.
• Organizing literary and cultural events, such as cultural festivals, book signings, literary conferences, and seminars that emphasize literary creation.

Writers unions not only contribute to cultural policymaking in the areas of publishing and writing, they also act as mediators in professional disputes. When necessary, they intervene to help resolve conflicts and safeguard the interests of writers.

This type of unions exists in most of the Arab countries surveyed, except for Sudan. They are national unions, often with branches in governorates and regions.

Having one writers’ union in each country, though important, is insufficient. A single union cannot adequately represent all writers within a country. Therefore, it is generally advisable to establish several more specialized writers’ unions, such as gender-based unions (like the Union of Women Writers,) the language-based unions, (like the Union of Amazigh Writers) and the unions formed around specific literary genres, such as poet associations.

There is noticeable absence of the professional associations or unions representing the interests of writers in the Arab countries surveyed. This absence creates significant gaps that silence the voices of Arab writers in both the cultural landscape and the organization of the profession and, consequently, writers become more vulnerable regarding their rights, freedom of expression, and defending their interests.

Professional associations of writers are essential for strengthening the cultural and literary movement in the country. They support creative writing and promote local literature. These associations, if any, are pillars that uphold freedom of expression and defend writers’ rights against censorship or persecution by providing a professional support network for the members.

Third – Library/Bookstore Associations

Library/bookstore associations are categorized into two groups: public library associations and independent bookstore associations. They differ in structure, objectives, and types of libraries/bookstores they represent.

A – Library associations: this encompasses a wide range of libraries that might be governmental or non-governmental. Typically, they represent large libraries that receive governmental or institutional support. They are usually non-profit organizations dedicated to supporting and advancing the profession of libraries and librarians. They are usually formed at the national level and aim to improve library services, enhance the profession, and provide professional support to individuals working in this field. These associations exist to meet the needs of all types of libraries, including public, academic, specialized, and private ones.

These associations provide professional support and assist librarians by organizing workshops, seminars, and conferences.

Moreover, they play a crucial role in defending the rights of libraries and librarians before government agencies and funding organizations, while working to protect freedom of access to information and intellectual property rights.

Library associations support all types of libraries—public, commercial, and academic- and seeks to defend and advocate for the work of all libraries, in accordance with the strategy and objectives of each individual association.

In the Arab countries studied, many have library associations. Examples include the Library and Book Lovers Association, the Public Library Unions in Tunisia, the Booksellers Associations in Morocco, and the Kuwaiti Libraries and Information Association. However, such associations do not exist in countries like Jordan, Sudan, and Yemen.

These associations can play a vital regional role through establishing relationships and networking among library associations and representing them in international and regional forums. One of the most notable regional associations is the Arab Federation for Libraries and Information (AFLI), which is a regional one, dedicated to enhancing libraries and information in the Arab world and providing support to both public and private libraries.

B – Independent bookstore associations: they support libraries that operate independently, outside the structures of government institutions or large corporations. They often represent privately funded libraries or libraries managed by non-governmental organizations, non-profit institutions, or independent individuals.

The main feature of independent library associations is that they are self-sustained, often relying on private funding such as donations, membership fees and other activities. They usually do not receive substantial government support.

These associations have higher flexibility when taking decisions about their groups, policies, and programs; they are not bound by governmental or institutional rules and policies.

Additionally, they represent small bookstores, and often support small or community bookstores that aim to provide cultural and educational services in local communities.

This type of associations is nearly absent in the Arab countries studied. The only exceptions are the Independent Bookstores Association in Morocco and the Syndicate of Independent Librarians, Book Suppliers, and Distributors in Tunisia. There are no similar organizations in the other Arab countries surveyed.

Independent associations can play a crucial role in supporting a vital segment of the publishing industry by aiding the small bookstores located across various regions and governorates; they can ensure that books will reach readers through the small libraries, which struggle to maintain economic viability and commercial sustainability.

In conclusion, both independent bookstore and library associations play a vital role in supporting libraries and librarians. However, they differ in the types of libraries/bookstores they support, the quality of services they offer, and their sources of funding.

C – Librarians’ Associations: they are non-profit, non-governmental professional organizations that represent and protect the interests of the people working in the area of libraries and information, including librarians and other library staff. These associations aim to enhance the profession of library management, develop standards for professional practice, and provide training and support to their members.

These associations aim to support and develop the library profession by providing training programs, workshops, and conferences to enhance the skills of library workers and promote best practices in libraries and information management.

These associations perform various functions, including training, education, capacity building, and the promotion of technology in library work. Ideally, these associations also engage in policy-making by offering advices to government agencies and international organizations on the issues related to library and information policies in general.

In the Arab countries surveyed, librarians’ associations are found only in Morocco and Tunisia, which denies many librarians real representation of their interests. Additionally, it denies the book sector the expertise of experienced individuals who play a crucial role in the publishing and book industry.

Without these associations, the publishing industry cannot get integrated and remains unable to access information that is vital for its development. The absence of these associations denies library workers opportunities to enhance their skills in various areas, including archiving, conservation, building indexes, and management.

In addition to the previously mentioned associations, there are several professional associations that represent various professions within the publishing industry, such as printing associations and unions, unions of publishing workers, which represent the workers in the printing and publishing sectors and seek to improve the work conditions and protect workers’ rights. These associations also aim to support the printing sector, safeguard workers in this field, and develop the sector to keep up with the technological changes.

Such associations are limited in the Arab countries surveyed. They exist only in Lebanon (the Association of Lebanese Printing Presses), in Morocco (the Professional Association of Book Professionals), and in Tunisia (the General Federation of Printing, Paper and Publishing) which is a body of the Tunisian Union of Industry, Trade and Handicrafts, the central organization of employers in Tunisia. There are no such associations in the other Arab countries, which reflects the weak social environment of the book industry due to the weak, or even absent, representation of an essential part of the book and publishing profession workforce.

Finally, in the Arab countries surveyed, there are translator associations that focus on regulating the profession and offering training and legal support to translators. These associations aim to protect the rights of translators and contribute to the development of the translation industry.

These associations are very important to ensure translators’ rights, particularly when there are no laws to protect them from exploitation and safeguard their intellectual property rights. As we will explore in the upcoming research, translators are a fundamental component of the publishing industry. Without a proper and serious representation of them, the development of publishing policies and strategies will remain weak.

In conclusion, simply having the associations and organizations mentioned above is not enough. Their roles must be activated, and efforts should be made to update and enhance their operational mechanisms. Additionally, they require financial and moral support, as well as training and capacity building for their staff, so they can effectively fulfill their important roles in the publishing industry.

Investing in the socioeconomic environment of the book industry—either through investment in associations or through offering vocational training for current and future publishing professionals—would overcome many gaps in the public policies of publishing in the Arab countries surveyed.

The tendency to support associations at the local level, rather than the national level, would elevate the industry standards and make it less centralized. This shift would open up markets and diversify cultural products for all segments of society in the Arab countries studied, helping them address the issues of marginalization and centralization.

The publishing industry is a complex one that goes beyond its apparent simplicity; it encompasses various professions and specializations. Representing all professional aspects of this industry would achieve an integrated process of policy making in the publishing sector in the Arab countries surveyed.

Appendix 5 – Socioeconomic Environment in Arab Countries

Participants in the Survey were asked about vocational training pertaining to all aspects of the publishing industry. They were also asked about the presence of professional unions and associations, along with their roles in the socioeconomic environment of the book industry in their respective countries.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

There is no vocational training for the publishing and book industry in Jordan, and no organizations offer skill development courses in book industry. Higher education institutions provide education in library and information management, also known as library science, some public universities, such as Al-Hussein University, the University of Jordan, and Zarqa University.

In Jordan, the most prominent professional publishing associations and unions include the Jordanian Publishers Association, the Jordanian Writers Union, and the Jordan Library and Information Association.

Several professional publishing-related associations are absent in the Kingdom. For example, there are no associations of independent publishers, no associations of librarians, no associations of many professions, such as translators, printers, and booksellers. Strengthening the role of civil society and establishing professional associations can significantly impact the publishing industry in Jordan; it could particularly enhance the representation of stakeholders within the book industry.

Arab Republic of Egypt

The educational system in Egypt, both public and private, does not provide comprehensive vocational training in the publishing and the book industry. Vocational training is limited to courses offered by the Egyptian Publishers Association, but these courses are available only to those who have already joined the publishing industry.

Education in Egypt is limited in this regard to library sciences, which are offered by most public universities. The degree awarded in this discipline is called a Bachelor of Arts, Department of Documents and Libraries.

There are many professional unions and associations relating to the publishing and book industry. Among the most prominent at the national level are the Egyptian Publishers Association and the Egyptian Writers Union. However, such associations are lacking at the local and governorate levels.

There is no gathering or association of independent publishers in Egypt, which deprives many of them of true representation in the publishing industry.

There are also some library-related associations in Egypt, including the Egyptian Libraries Association and the Egyptian Libraries, Information, and Archives Association. However, independent and small bookstores, particularly at the local level, are underrepresented.

There are also non-governmental civil society groups and associations pertaining to professions within the publishing and book industry, such as the Egyptian Translators & Linguists’ Association, the Egyptian Printing Press Authority, and the Cooperative Production Association of Printing Industry and Equipment. This is positive, particularly if such associations are supported, their roles are activated, their bylaws are updated, and their connections with the publishing industry and policymakers in Egypt are strengthened.

Republic of Sudan

The conflict in Sudan has affected all aspects of education and vocational training, including the publishing and book industry. Currently, there is no publishing-related governmental or private vocational training.

There is no specialized education in library sciences at either public or private educational institutions in Sudan. Therefore, there is a significant gap even before the conflict began.

The role of professional associations and unions in Sudan has vanished due to the ongoing conflict, lack of support, and the continuous migration and displacement from Sudanese cities and villages. Many unions’ activities have been disrupted by the conflict, including the National Association of Book Publishers, the National Book Foundation, and the Library Association.

According to the respondents, even before the conflict, there were no professional unions or associations representing the various professions of the publishing and book industry.

Republic of Yemen

Yemen suffers from conditions similar to those of Sudan; the conflict that has been ongoing for more than ten years, has weakened the public and private education sectors, alike. Currently, there is no training pertaining to the publishing and book industry, and neither public nor private educational institutions offer any education in library and information science.

As for professional associations, their existence is significantly limited, even before the ongoing conflict. The conflict has demolished every effectiveness of the existing unions and associations, such as the Yemeni Publishers Association and the Yemeni Writers Union. It has also paralyzed several associations, including the Yemeni Association for Libraries and Information and the Printing Press Workers Union.

Syrian Arab Republic

There is no official or unofficial vocational training or workshops on the publishing and book industry in Syria. The formal education in this field is limited to library studies. The Universities of Damascus and Tishreen in Latakia both have departments of Library and Information Science, which aim to train and qualify specialized professionals to support libraries and other information and documentation institutions.

In these departments, there is a course on the publishing industry that covers both traditional and electronic publishing. This course provides information about the history, development, and significance of publishing, as well as the methods of handling traditional and electronic information sources. It also addresses where these sources are conserved in both traditional and electronic libraries.

The presence of publishing and book-related unions and associations in Syria is quite limited. There are the SPA, the Syrian Writers Union, and the Syrian Association of Libraries and Documents. However, there are no associations for independent publishing or independent bookstores. Additionally, there are no unions or associations representing the various professions within the publishing and book industry, such as associations of translators, booksellers, or printing workers.

Investment in and activating this kind of professional associations can help speed up the recovery process from the effects of the conflict and economic crises in Syria.

Kuwait

Similar to the Arab countries mentioned above, Kuwait lacks any kind of vocational training in the publishing and book industry. The only university offering library and information sciences is the governmental Kuwait University.

The situation in Kuwait mirrors that of the foregoing countries regarding unions and professional associations relating to the publishing and book sector. There is the Kuwaiti Publishers Association, the Kuwait Writers Association, and the Library & Information Association of Kuwait. However, there is notable absence of other professional associations, such as an independent publishers’ association, librarian associations, and the associations of other publishing-related professions, such as translation and printing.

Lebanese Republic

The Faculty of Information at the Lebanese University is the only institution that provides undergraduate education in a field related to the publishing and book industry; it is the library and information science. There are no formal or informal professional training programs or university-level educational specializations in the publishing and book industry.

As for professional associations and unions, there are several publishing-related associations, such as the Lebanese Publishers Association, which is a public union, and Publishers for the Profession, which is a private independent group made up of many independent publishers.

There are also, the Lebanese Writers Union, which is a public union, and the Syndicate of Booksellers. In addition, there are various unions and associations of certain professions of the publishing sector, such as the Lebanese Printing Press Association, the Syndicate of Book Importers, and the Syndicate of Lebanese Bookbinders.

Supporting these existing associations and unions would enhance their work and provide better representation of publishing stakeholders.

Kingdom of Morocco

Morocco is one of the few Arab countries surveyed that provide vocational training relating the publishing and book industry. This type of education is available at public universities. For instance, the Faculty of Arts and Humanities offers a major in Professional Writing and Book Professions.

Survey participants indicated that a professional “Book Trade” degree was established at the University of Casablanca in 2007. This program continued until 2020, when it was changed to a “Book Series” option within the French Literature department due to the limited number of interested students. The program aimed to provide specialized training that combined theoretical knowledge of the field with practical skills, focusing on the acquisition and mastery of professional practices. Students were admitted based on their academic records after completing two to four semesters at the undergraduate level. The goal of the program was to produce qualified professionals who could keep up with the developments in the book market and contribute to its growth.

Several Moroccan universities incorporate libraries, information, and archives departments into their undergraduate programs. Additionally, the Moroccan Publishers Association offers paid courses to the public and private sectors to enhance publishing, marketing, and bookselling skills.

Regarding professional unions and associations, the Association of Professional Publishers stands out as the most significant organization representing the publishing industry. Additionally, there is an informal group, that is not organized as a trade union: the Association of Young Independent Publishers in Morocco.

Several professional associations are involved in Morocco’s publishing industry, including the Greater Casablanca Booksellers Association and the Regional Booksellers Association located in Rabat.

In Morocco, there are several associations dedicated to library/bookstore affairs. Among these are the Association of Independent Libraries in Morocco stands out as one of the most prominent professional organizations. It plays an important role in representing the interests of small bookstores.

In addition to the Association of National Informatics (ANI), which encompasses librarians, document curators, archivists, and the Rural Library Support Association, the distinct experiences of professional associations and unions in Morocco provide numerous opportunities for networking, collaboration, and the activation of these associations.

In Morocco, there are several professional associations of authors, including the Moroccan Writers’ Association, the Moroccan Women Writers’ Association, the House of Poetry and Poets, and the Amazigh Writers’ Association. This variety of associations and unions helps reduce the marginalization of both male and female authors, as well as those involved in creative writing. As a result, these organizations provide better representation compared with the other Arab countries surveyed.

Republic of Tunisia

Tunisia lacks a clear and consistent strategy for teaching publishing and vocational training. However, several government structures, institutions, and associations are involved in this effort, including:

• The Institute of Translation of Tunis.
• The Higher Institute of Documentation.
• The Higher Institute of Printing and Multimedia Technologies.
• University degree in Publishing and Printing from the Institute of Journalism (it lasted for five years).
• The African Center for Training in Publishing and Distribution Professions (it lasted for 20 years).
• Cultural associations that organize training courses in publishing, libraries, and media.
• Specialized Certificate in Writing Professions, Faculty of Arts, Sfax, Tunisia.

Further attention is needed, and these institutions should be part of a clear educational and training plan.

In Tunisia, the most notable organizations representing publishers are the Tunisian Publishers Association and the Tunisian Publishers Federation. However, there is currently no independent professional association for small publishers in the country.

As for libraries/bookstores, there are about 100 non-governmental and non-profit associations for library and book lovers, in addition to the Public Libraries Syndicate, which represents stakeholders in the public libraries sector, along with the Syndicate of Librarians, Distributors, and Suppliers.

Finally, for authors and writers, the largest group is the Tunisian Writers Union, which exclusively represents writers, in addition to the “League of Free Writers,” which is an association of authors.

Sultanate of Oman

In Oman, neither the public nor the private education system provides comprehensive vocational training in the field of publishing and book industry. There are no entities, whether public or private, that offer any kind of vocational training in the field of publishing and book industry. The public education is limited to library and information science through private and public universities in the country.

The situation in Oman mirrors that of many of the Arab countries surveyed, particularly concerning professional unions and associations in the publishing and book sector. The existing organizations are limited to the National Syndicate of Book Publishers, the National Book Foundation, the Omani Society of Writers, and the Omani Library Association. Notably absent are other professional associations, such as an independent publishers’ association and various associations for librarians and other professionals in the publishing industry, including those concerned with translation and printing.

State of Palestine

Unfortunately, there is no vocational or university training pertaining to the publishing, book, and library industries in the State of Palestine. This absence has significant impact on these sectors, which face numerous challenges due to the restrictions imposed by the Israeli occupation, the limited resources, and the absence of a clear strategy or policy from the side of the Palestinian Authority.

The role of professional unions and associations is limited to the Palestinian Publishers Association and the Public Libraries Association. Supporting Palestinian publishers and writers in establishing their own professional unions and associations would create numerous opportunities for organizing, networking, and collaborating with both Arab and international publishing unions.

Intellectual Property Rights between Law and Piracy (chapter 6)

The laws governing copyright and intellectual property rights in the book sector are crucial legal tools that help protect intellectual and artistic creativity. These laws are designed to safeguard the rights of authors and creators, allowing them control over how their works are used and distributed. Throughout history, various international conventions have tried to protect these rights, regulate the rights of countries and individuals, and create a unified framework for intellectual property rights on a global scale. Below is an overview of the international laws and conventions that regulate copyrights and intellectual property rights within the book sector:

First- The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works: It is an international convention established to safeguard the rights of authors over their literary and artistic creations. The Convention was adopted in 1886 in Bern, Switzerland, and is one of the most significant agreements concerning intellectual property rights on the international scale. The Convention regulates the rights of authors to publish and utilize their works across the countries that are signatories to it.

The main principles of the Convention:

• Reciprocity: Authors from signatory countries enjoy the same rights in other countries as citizens of those countries.
• Automatic protection: The agreement does not require any formal action from the author to obtain protection; the work is protected when it is created.
• Minimum protection: The agreement sets out minimum rights that signatory countries must provide, such as rights to reproduction, public performance, and broadcasting.
• Duration of protection: the agreement states that copyright protection lasts at least fifty years after the author’s death.

The Convention has been signed by most countries worldwide and remains a fundamental one to date though some amendments have been made over the years.

Second: The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property:  First signed in 1883, the Convention is one of the earliest international agreements pertaining to the protection of industrial property rights, including patents, trademarks, and industrial designs. Since its adoption, the Convention has undergone many amendments, the latest one was in 1975. Similar to the previous convention, it has been signed by most countries around the world. The following are its main provisions and principles:

• Reciprocity: the agreement ensures equal treatment of citizens regarding industrial property rights among member states.
• Priority: allows inventors to apply for a patent in any member state. If they apply for a patent in another member state within 12 months, they will have the right of priority.
• Equal protection: member States must provide equal protection to foreigners and their citizens.

The Paris Convention is crucial to protect innovations and commercial rights worldwide; it is a key element of the global intellectual property rights framework.

Third- The Geneva Copyright Convention, also known as the WIPO Copyright Treaty, is an agreement that was signed in 1996 under the auspices of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). The Convention aims to modernize copyright laws to keep up with the challenges posed by technological advancements, especially with the emergence of the Internet and digital media. It includes several principles, the most important of which are:

• Adapting to digital technology: the agreement seeks to safeguard authors’ rights in the digital space by granting them copying rights and ensuring their availability online.
• Additional rights: the agreement provides authors with additional rights, including performance and reproduction rights for digital works. This means authors can control how their works are distributed and reproduced online.
• Anti-piracy protection: The agreement includes anti-piracy measures to prevent unauthorized use of protected works online.
• Public performance rights: the agreement ensures protection of authors’ rights for public performances and broadcasts via the Internet or digital media.

The Convention represents a crucial step towards safeguarding copyrights in the digital era; it tackles the issues that have arisen with the swift advancement of digital communication and the Internet.

These conventions seek to address the challenges posed by modern publishing, authorship, and printing technologies, and to combat piracy against authors, publishers, and everyone in the publishing industry.

All the Arab countries surveyed have gradually joined the previous conventions.

Joining the Paris, Berne, and Geneva Conventions, Arab countries have become part of the international system of intellectual property protection. However, the implementation and enforcement of intellectual property laws vary among Arab countries, many of which face significant challenges relating to awareness and actual enforcement.

The Conventions encountered significant challenges in the Arab region during their implementation, the most notable of which are:

• Implementation and enforcement: though most Arab countries have joined these Conventions, there are challenges in their actual implementation, including the issues of piracy, counterfeiting, and weak enforcement mechanisms.
• Judicial system: the different judicial systems and local laws regarding intellectual property rights can complicate the implementation of these conventions.
• Public awareness: many countries lack awareness about the significance of intellectual property rights, leading to increased instances of copyright and industrial property infringement.

All the Arab countries surveyed, except for Palestine, have enacted laws protecting the intellectual property of authors, thereby complying with most provisions of the aforementioned conventions.

Intellectual property laws safeguard various aspects of intellectual property rights, whether material and moral. The laws and the obligation to ensure their enforcement, are crucial for maintaining a sustainable publishing industry and for protecting the rights of creators in the Arab world.

Copyright ownership encompasses two primary types of rights:

• Economic rights: they allow authors to receive financial compensation for the exploitation of their works, including the rights to print, distribute, and publish them.
• Moral rights: they are the rights that safeguard the personal connection between authors and their works, even after transferring the economic rights to others.

First, the moral rights are not financial rights and are granted to authors for their lifetime; they cannot be ceded or sold, even if the financial rights have been sold. They are designed to protect the personal relationship between authors and their works. Moral rights include:

• Attribution right: the author’s right to be recognized as the creator of the work, meaning that the work must hold the author’s name.
• Right to amend: the right to object to any changes or distortions that could negatively impact the author’s reputation or alter the original work.
• Right to integrity: the right to maintain the integrity of a literary or artistic work and to prevent any modifications that the author has not approved.

Moral rights are permanent; they remain valid after the author’s death, and are passed on to the heirs. In many countries, moral rights may not be relinquished.

Second, property rights, also known as economic or financial rights; they are the rights that enable authors to financially benefit from their works, whether through publication, sale, or use authorization. These rights allow individuals to earn financial returns from the use of their literary or artistic creations. They include the following:

• Reproduction right: the right to print or reproduce the work.
• Distribution right: the right to distribute copies of the work in the market.
• Right to public performance: the right to present the work to the public, whether on stages or other venues.
• Adaptation right: the right to transform a work into other formats, such as adapting a book into a film or play.
• Property rights: they are transferable and relinquishable through authorization or sale, and inheritable by the author’s heirs.

Third – The duration of copyrights varies by country, but generally complies with international standards, such as those provided for in the Berne Convention. Typically, the duration of copyrights is as follows:

• Throughout an author’s lifetime: authors’ rights are reserved throughout their lifetimes.
• After an author’s death: copyrights continue for a specific period of time after an author’s death. In most countries, this period is fifty or seventy years after death. In the Arab countries surveyed, the duration of copyrights is fifty years after an author’s death.

Once the designated period has elapsed, the work enters the public domain. This means that anyone can use it freely, without the need to get permission or pay fees to the author or their heirs.

Copyright, moral rights, and intellectual property rights are vital elements that safeguard authors and their literary or artistic works. Property rights enable authors to earn money from their works, while moral rights ensure that the author’s personal and literary respect is maintained even after their death. The duration of these rights varies based on local and international laws, but, often, they persist for decades after the author’s death, thereby benefiting their heirs.

The laws in the Arab countries surveyed protect all moral and financial aspects mentioned above; detailed information about these laws can be found in the appendix at the end of the chapter.

Reproduction Rights

Reproduction rights are among the main rights protected under intellectual property laws, especially copyright. They grant the author or owner of a work the exclusive right to copy or reproduce their literary, artistic, or scientific works in any form, whether on paper, electronically, digitally, etc. These rights also include the right to control the reproduction of books, films, music, and other types of creative content.

Most of the Arab countries surveyed, have developed laws that protect intellectual property rights, including reproduction right. However, the enforcement and effectiveness of these laws vary significantly from one country to another. While most Arab countries have adopted relatively modern legislation that aligns with international reproduction standards, the real challenge remains in implementing these laws in practice.

A significant common challenge that Arab countries face is digital and physical piracy, which is a widespread issue in many of these countries. Piracy is regarded as a major obstacle to enforcing reproduction laws. For instance, the illegal copying of movies, books, and software is prevalent in some countries. 

There is significant lack of public awareness regarding the importance of reproduction rights in many Arab countries, even among those working in the publishing industry. Many individuals do not understand that unauthorized copying of materials negatively impacts the publishing industry and stifles creativity. They care only about the money and profits they can make easily from books, regardless of the rightsholders. Furthermore, many people do not view books as property in the same way they view cars, houses, land, or industrial machinery, despite the fact that books represent a vital source of livelihood and income for many people working in the publishing sector and their families.

In addition to the foregoing challenges and despite the existence of reproduction rights laws in most Arab countries, the challenge is the weak enforcement of these laws and the insufficient mechanisms to control piracy and reproduction rights infringement.

With the spread of the Internet, controlling digital piracy has become increasingly challenging, heightening the difficulties facing reproduction rights.

In most Arab countries, reproduction rights are protected by local laws and international conventions like the Berne Convention. However, the effective enforcement of these laws poses challenges due to the prevalence of piracy, weak public awareness, and insufficient enforcement mechanisms.

Translation and Translators’ Rights

Translators’ rights in the book business are a crucial aspect of the laws of intellectual property rights and copyright. Similar to authors, translators possess a set of rights designed to protect their work and uphold their financial and moral rights. While these rights differ from one country to another, there are general principles that can be widely applied.

Legal provisions regarding the rights of translators in the book business are widely recognized. The most significant of these rights include:

1. Copyright for translators: Translators hold copyright on the works they translate, as translation is regarded as an independent creative activity. Consequently, translators enjoy the same rights as the original authors.

In some countries, translators are recognized as authors themselves and are granted copyrights, which include the exclusive rights to use, reproduce, and distribute the translated work.

International conventions safeguard the rights of translators, such as the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. This Convention recognizes translation as a derivative work that is independent of the original text.

2. Intellectual property rights: Translators have the right to obtain intellectual property rights for their translated works. This grants them the recognition of authorship on the work and the authority to prevent any unauthorized modifications to their translations.

According to international laws, such as the Berne Convention, translators hold intellectual property rights over their translations and are entitled to appropriate financial compensation for their work.

3. Financial rights (royalties): In many contracts, translators receive financial rights that may include either a percentage of sales or a fixed amount for the translated work.

In some countries, translators benefit from collective agreements that establish minimum wages and compensation.

4. Moral rights: Translators possess moral rights that ensure they are recognized as the authors of the translated work. This includes the requirement to clearly mention the translator’s name on the book or publication. Both international and local laws grant translators the right to be credited, meaning they must be identified as the translators of the translated works in all editions and publications.

5. Duration of translator’s rights protection: A translator’s rights last for a certain period after their death, typically the same duration as the original author’s rights (50 to 70 years after death, depending on local laws). Once this period ends, the translation enters the public domain.

The laws in the Arab countries surveyed do not protect the rights of translators, with the exception of Jordan. Most respondents indicated that there are no specific laws addressing translators’ rights; instead, these rights are mentioned in various articles of copyright laws. For instance, in Lebanon, the respondents reported that there are no specific laws regarding translators’ rights in relation to books, and there are no institutions or unions to represent them. The only reference is found in Article 3 of the Intellectual Property Protection Law, which states that all subsidiary works are subject to the provisions of this law and benefit from the protection it offers, provided that the rights of the original work’s author are not infringed upon.

The same is true, for example, in Morocco: translators’ rights are referenced in Law No. 200 on Copyright and Neighboring rights, specifically in Article 5, which addresses the protection of translations. However, the law does not include any provisions that outline the financial and moral rights of translators.

Protecting the rights of translators is essential for the protection of creativity and intellectual work, and for establishing translation as a vital component of the publishing and book industries. The situation for translators in the Arab countries surveyed is fragile and vulnerable. There are no unions to advocate for their rights, they are not represented in decision-making and policy-making processes, and there are laws in place to protect them from the exploitation of their work. As a result, this environment encourages many individuals to pirate, steal, or plagiarize the works and rights of translators.

Translators in the book industry enjoy significant legal rights that protect their work, both financially and morally. These rights enable them to control the publication of their translations and ensure they receive fair compensation. These rights must be respected, solidified in the law, and reinforced in agreements between publishers and translators in the Arab world.

Piracy in the Arab Publishing Industry

Piracy in the publishing industry is regarded as one of the most significant challenges facing the book sector in the Arab world. With the advancement of technology and the rapid spread of the Internet, book piracy has become a complex issue. Unauthorized distribution of books occurs without the permission of copyright holders, including authors, publishers, and translators.

Piracy in publishing refers to the unauthorized copying of books and other copyrighted materials. This can include print books, e-books, audiobooks, and academic publications. Such materials are often distributed online or in physical form without compensating the rights holders.

Types of piracy in the Arab publishing arena:

• Paper book piracy: Paper books still account for a significant portion of the publishing market in the Arab world. However, the industry faces challenges relating to counterfeiting and unauthorized copying. In some cases, books are illegally reprinted and sold at low prices, which causes losses for publishers and authors.
• E-Book piracy: E-books have become popular in the Arab world over the past decade, and with this growth, digital piracy has emerged. Digital piracy involves the distribution of unauthorized copies of e-books online through file-sharing sites or piracy applications. These books are often shared in formats like PDF and ePub, among others.
• Academic book piracy: Academic and textbooks are particularly vulnerable to piracy. These books are often illegally shared among students and researchers, who may find the legitimate copies too expensive, leading them to rely on pirated ones.

The Survey reveals several reasons for the spread of piracy in the Arab publishing world, mainly:

1. Inadequate deterrent laws: In many of the Arab countries studied, there are laws intended to protect intellectual property rights, but their enforcement is often weak or ineffective.
2. Lack of awareness of intellectual property rights: There is a widespread lack of awareness regarding the importance of intellectual property rights in Arab countries, whether at the individual or institutional level.
3. Weak mechanisms to combat digital piracy: Despite the technological advance, there is notable absence of technological or procedural tools that could help reduce piracy in the Arab world.

Piracy has severe and damaging consequences for the Arab publishing industry, particularly affecting authors and publishers financially. It significantly lowers the income they earn from book sales, resulting in substantial revenue losses.

Piracy has a detrimental effect on the future of the book industry as a whole. It poses a significant threat to the viability of publishing, making it financially challenging for publishers to keep producing books. This situation becomes especially problematic when their revenues are consistently at risk.

Finally, as a consequence of the financial challenges that publishers face due to piracy, some may be compelled to reduce their investments in the quality of books. This includes areas such as editing, printing, and distribution, which can result in a decline in the overall quality of the available books.

There are several ways to combat piracy in the Arab region, one of which is to have strict laws. It is essential to strengthen the legal frameworks and establish appropriate mechanisms for their enforcement in Arab countries to address piracy seriously. This issue should be treated as a perfect crime that encompasses forgery, theft, and plagiarism.

Stakeholders in the publishing industry, along with official state institutions, need to exert more efforts to raise awareness about the significance of intellectual property rights. It’s crucial to support writers and authors by purchasing legal books. Conferences and cultural initiatives play a key role in increasing reader awareness.

Combating piracy is a collective effort that must be exerted to ensure the protection of the publishing industry, in general, and intellectual property rights, in particular. This process should be spearheaded by official cultural institutions and judicial authorities to strengthen the legal oversight against copyright violations.

The responsibility to combat piracy also falls on publishers and authors, and readers as well. This can be accomplished by raising awareness on how to combat piracy in the Arab world.

In the Arab countries surveyed, there are laws establishing penalties for violating copyrights and translation rights. These penalties include fines, delicensing, and even imprisonment up to six months, as is the case in Syria, where the individuals convicted of such violations can face imprisonment ranging from three months to two years, along with a fine, or either of these penalties alone.

The penalties include:

• Fraudulently attributing a work to someone else or instructing another person to do so on a literary, artistic, or scientific work.
• Imitating the signature of the original author or the individual to whom copyright has been transferred, or the distinctive sign used by any of them with the intent to deceive the buyer.
• He shall be punished by imprisonment from one month to one year, and by a fine, or by one of these two penalties.
• Engaging in unlawful quotation or misattribution of a portion of a work or audiovisual recording beyond the acceptable limits.
• Knowingly selling, depositing, offering for sale, or circulating a counterfeit work or a work signed by an impostor.

The laws in the Arab countries surveyed are consistent in their penalties for forgery, piracy, and violations of intellectual property rights. However, the respondents indicated that the official institutions tasked with combating piracy lack sufficient tools, particularly the technological ones. Investments that aim to tighten oversight and enforce the penalties outlined in the existing laws, would greatly improve the publishing and authorship industry in the Arab world. Eliminating both electronic and print piracy would benefit publishers, authors, distributors, and libraries by increasing their income, respecting creative works, and enhancing the conditions for producing such works in the Arab world.

Due to the weak enforcement of laws and regulations concerning violations of intellectual property rights, new opportunities arise for stakeholders in the publishing industry—such as publishers, authors, print workers, and other professionals. These stakeholders can develop CODs and ethics charters designed to govern relationships within the publishing sector, which includes cultural producers, authors, publishers, and translators. The purpose of these codes is to ensure fair relations among all parties, promote respect for intellectual property rights, and establish guidelines for the regulation and enforcement of copyright.

Such codes and charters typically contain fundamental principles that aim to achieve goals beneficial to producers. The major principles of those are:

• Protecting authors’ rights: Many CODs focus on ensuring that authors receive the financial and moral rights they deserve for their works.
• Defining rights and duties: These codes regulate the relationships between publishers, authors, and cultural producers through clear contracts that specify rights and duties.
• Commitment to professional ethics: such charters aim to enhance the professional ethics that all parties are expected to abide by.
• Protecting translators’ rights: Some charters also emphasize the protection of translators’ rights, highlighting their entitlement to both financial compensation and moral recognition.

The IPA is one of the world’s foremost organizations dedicated to upholding CODs that protect intellectual property rights and promote fair and professional publishing practices globally. The IPA advises its members to follow international standards that safeguard the rights of authors, translators, and publishers.

The need for CODs or professional ethics charters in the Arab region is dire due to the ineffective oversight and the widespread issues relating to intellectual property rights and their protection. Additionally, there are behaviors that violate general professional ethics in the Arab countries surveyed. None of the responses from all these countries reported the existence of such codes or charters. Strengthening and establishing associations dedicated to developing these CODs would increase transparency in the publishing industry, help publishers organize their businesses, and create models for publishing cooperatives that can tackle the various challenges facing the publishing sector in the Arab world.

Appendix 6 – Laws governing intellectual property rights

Participants were asked about the laws governing intellectual property rights in their countries, the implementation mechanisms in place, the level of monitoring, and the challenges they encounter concerning intellectual property, translators’ rights, and the piracy combating.

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

In Jordan there are several laws that regulate copyright and intellectual property rights. These laws align with the provisions of international conventions that protect intellectual property, to which Jordan is a signatory. These conventions include the Berne Convention, the Paris Convention, and the Geneva Convention on property rights.

The Jordanian laws encompass all aspects of intellectual property, including copyrights, moral rights, and proprietary rights. The duration of copyrights is set at fifty years following the author’s death.

The Law No. 22 of 1992 and the Copyright Law, as amended in 2014, serve as the primary framework for the protection and regulation of intellectual property rights and the neighboring rights. These laws address various aspects of right protection, including the rights to book reproduction (both photocopying and digital reproduction).

According to Article 18 of the 1992 Law, ” The newspapers and periodicals may not relate episodes of stories and short stories and other products published in the other newspapers and newsletters, without the consent of their author. However, the newspapers may relate articles of political, economic and religious nature published in other newspapers which preoccupy the public opinion, unless it was stated in the newspaper in which those articles were published that they are not to be explicitly related, provided that in all cases the source from which they were relayed is mentioned.”

Article 19 of the 1992 Law states that “The newspapers and other media means may publish without the authorization of the author the speeches, lectures, talks and other similar products that are publicly presented or addressed to the public, provided that in all these cases the product and its author are mentioned, and that the author of any of these products publishes it in one printed material, or in any other manner of form he chooses.”

According to Article 20 of the 1992 Law, “Public libraries and non-commercial documentation centers, educational institutes, scientific and cultural institutions may copy any product by photocopying it without the permission of the author, provided that the photocopies and the number of photocopies are limited to the need of those institutions, and that this process does not damage the copyright of the product’s author, and that it does not violate the ordinary exploitation of that product.”

While Article 9 of the amended Law 23 cancelled Article 17 of the old law and replaced it with:

Published works may be used without the author’s permission, as long as such use does not interfere with the normal exploitation of the work and does not unjustly harm the legitimate interests of the rights holder in any of the following situations:

A. Presenting the product, displaying it, acting it or rhyming it if it happened in a private family meeting or in an educational, cultural or social institution for clarification for educational purposes. The musical groups affiliated to the State may rhyme the musical products, provided for all this that this does not result in any financial return, and that the source and author are mentioned in it.

B. Using the product for personal use, by making one copy through photocopying, recording, photography, translation or musical distribution.

C. To depend on the product in clarification in education through printed materials, programs, audio visual and voice recording for educational, cultural, religious objectives or vocational training, within the limits require for fulfilling these objectives, provided that the aim of depending on the product in this case is not lucrative, and that the name of the product and its author are mentioned. However, this does not permit copying or using the work in its entirety or major portions.

D. To quote paragraphs from the product in another product for the purpose of clarification, explanation, discussing, criticizing, educating or testing in as much as justifiable by this objective, provided that the name of the product and its author are mentioned.

The foregoing law included specific provisions regulating the rights of translators. Article 5 of the law stipulates that the rights of the author of the original work that enjoys protection shall not be prejudiced, and for the purposes of this law, the following are deemed as authors:

A. Whoever translates the product into another language or transforms it from a form of literature, arts, or science to another form, or summarizes it, converts it, amends it, explains it, comments on it or indexes it, or other ways that display it in a new form.

In Jordan, violations of intellectual property rights are governed by Law No. 22, as amended, which outlines specific penalties for such infringements. The key provisions are as follows:

Article 51: Shall be sentenced to prison for a period of not less than three months and not more than one year, and for a fine of not less than one thousand Dinars, and not more than six thousand Dinars, or to one of these two punishments:

1. Everyone who practiced without a legal deed one of the rights stipulated in the articles of this law (moral rights, copyright, translation rights, publishing rights, time period).
2. Everyone who displayed for sale, circulation or lease an imitated product, or copies thereof, or broadcast it to the public as being imitated in any manner whatsoever, or entered it to the Kingdom or taken it out of it, knowing it is imitated. Or if there are sufficient reasons and evidence to do so.
3. For the purposes of applying the provisions of Clause (2) of this Paragraph, the presence of copies of illegal works in a shop or commercial establishment shall be considered evidence of their presence for the purposes of sale, trading or rental.

B. In the event of repetition of any of the crimes stipulated in para (a) of this Article, its perpetrator shall be sentenced to the maximum imprisonment sentence and to the highest fine. The court in this case may rule to close down the institution in which the crime was committed for a period of not more than a year, or to stop its licensing for a certain period or indefinitely.

Arab Republic of Egypt

Egypt has enacted various laws to regulate copyright and intellectual property rights within the book sector. These laws are in line with the international conventions that protect intellectual property, to which Egypt is a signatory, such as the Berne Convention, the Paris Convention, and the Geneva Convention on property rights.

The Egyptian laws govern all aspects of intellectual property, including copyrights, moral rights, and proprietary rights. The duration of copyright is set at fifty years following the author’s death.

Law No. 82 of 2002 is the primary legal framework for regulating intellectual property rights in the publishing industry. This law includes provisions related to book reproduction rights (photocopying and digital reproduction).

According to Article 170 of the Law, any person may request from the competent ministry to be granted a personal license for the reproduction or translation, or both, of any work protected under this Law, without the authorization of the author and for the purposes indicated in the next paragraph, against equitable remuneration to the author or his successor, to the extent that such license is not in contradiction with the normal exploitation of the work or does not unduly prejudice the legitimate interests of the author or the copyright holders.

The license shall be granted, by a motivated decision, indicating the scope in time and place, for the purpose of meeting teaching requirements of all kinds and levels.

The Regulations shall prescribe the terms and conditions for the grant of such a license and the categories of fees due, which shall not exceed 1,000 pounds for each work.

Article 171 of the same law states that, without prejudice to the moral rights of the author under this Law, the author may not, after the publication of the work, prevent third parties from carrying out any of the following acts:

1. Perform the work in family context or student gathering within an educational institution, to the extent that no direct or indirect financial remuneration is obtained.

2. Make a single copy of the work for one’s exclusive personal use, provided that such a copy shall not hamper the normal exploitation of the work nor cause undue prejudice to the legitimate interests of the author or copyright holders; However, the author or his successor may, after the publication of the work, prevent third parties from carrying out any of the following acts without his authorization:

* Reproduction or copying works of fine, applied or plastic arts, unless they were displayed in a public place, or works of architecture;

* Reproduction or copying of all or a substantial part of the notes of a musical work;

* Reproduction or copying of all or a substantial part of a database or computer program.

3- Make, with the consent of the legitimate owner of the program, a single copy or an adaptation of a computer program, even if exceeding the extent necessary for the use of the program inasmuch as it remains within the limits of the purpose for which consent was initially granted, for archiving purposes or to replace a lost, destroyed or invalid original copy. In either case, the original or adapted copy shall be destroyed upon expiration of the property title. The Regulations shall determine the terms and conditions of adaptation from the program.

4- Make an analysis of the work, or excerpts or quotations therefrom, for the purpose of criticism, discussion or information.

5- Reproduction from protected works for use in legal or administrative proceedings, in as much as required by such proceedings, provided that the source and the name of the author are mentioned.

6- Reproduction of short extracts from a work for teaching purposes, by way of illustration and explanation, in a written form or through an audio, visual or audiovisual recording, provided that such reproduction is within reasonable limits and does not go beyond the desired purpose, and provided that the name of the author and the title of the work are mentioned on each copy whenever possible and practical.

7- Reproduction, if necessary for teaching purposes in educational institutes, of an article, a short work or extracts therefrom, provided that:

• reproduction is made once or at different separate occasions;
• the name of the author and the title of the work are mentioned on each copy.

8- Making a single copy of the work, through the intermediary of a documentation and archiving center or through a bookshop not aiming at making any direct or indirect profit, and provided that:

• where the reproduced work is a published article, a short work or an extract of a work, the aim of reproduction is to satisfy the needs of a natural person, the copy will be used only for study or research purposes, and that a single copy is made or at different occasions;
• where the reproduction is made with the aim of preserving the original copy or, when necessary, replacing a lost, destroyed or has become invalid copy, and it was impossible to obtain such a substitute copy under reasonable conditions.

9- Ephemeral reproduction of a work where such reproduction is made in relay, during a digital transmission of the work or in the course of a process of reception of a digitally stored work, within the normal operation of the device used by an authorized person.

Article 172 states that, without prejudice to the moral rights of the author under this Law, the author or his successor may not prevent newspapers, periodicals or broadcasting organizations, in as much as justified by their aims, from doing the following:

1. Publishing excerpts from his works which were legally made available to the public, and his published articles on topical issues of concern to the public opinion, unless the author has prohibited such publication when publishing the work, and provided that the source, the name of the author and the title of the work were mentioned.

2. Publishing speeches, lectures, opinions or statements delivered in public sessions of the parliament, legislative or administrative bodies or scientific, literary, artistic, political, social or religious meetings, including statements delivered during public court proceedings. However, the author alone or his successor shall have the right to make collections of such works, for which he shall be entitled to claim authorship.

3. Publication of extracts of an audio, visual or audiovisual work made available to the public in the course of covering current events.

Finally, Article 173 states that restrictions on the author’s economic rights, under this Law, shall also apply to owners of neighboring rights.

However, translators are not explicitly mentioned regarding their rights. They are included under the term “holders of neighboring rights,” which means that the same provisions of the Law that apply to authors’ rights are applicable to translators.

As for infringements, the Egyptian law provides for several penalties and sanctions for violations of intellectual property rights. According to Article 181, without prejudice to any more severe sanction under any other law, shall be punishable by imprisonment for a period of not less than one month and by a fine of not less than 5,000 pounds and not more than 10,000 pounds, or any of those sanctions, any person who commits any of the following acts:

1. Selling, renting or putting in circulation under any form, a work, a sound recording or a broadcast program protected under this Law, without a prior written authorization from the author or the owner of the related right;

2. Knowingly imitating, selling, offering for sale, circulation or rental, a work, a sound recording or a broadcast program;

3. Knowingly imitating within the country, selling, offering for sale or circulation, renting or exporting to a foreign country a work, a sound recording or a broadcast program published in a foreign country;

4. Dissemination through computer networks, Internet, information networks, communication networks and other means of technology of a work, an sound recording, a broadcast program or a performance protected under this Law, without a prior written authorization from the author or the owner of the related right;

5. Manufacturing, assembling or importing for the purpose of sale or rent any device, tool or implement especially designed or made to circumvent a technical protection means, such as encryption or the like, used by the author or the owner of the related right;

6. Removing, neutralizing or disabling, in bad faith, any technical protection device used by the author or the owner of the neighboring rights;

7. Infringing any of the moral or economic copyrights or neighboring rights provided for in this Law.

Sanctions shall be multiplied according to the number of infringed works, sound recordings, broadcast programs or performances.

In case of repetition, the punishment shall consist of imprisonment for a period of not less than three months and a fine of not less than 10,000 pounds and not more than 50,000 pounds.

In all cases, the court shall order the confiscation of the infringing copies, those obtained as a result of infringement, as well as equipment and implements used to commit the infringement.

In case of conviction, the court may also order the closure of the establishment used by the convicted person to commit his infringement, for a period of not more than six months. In case of repetition, the closure shall be mandatory in the cases of infringement provided for under items (2) and (3) of this Article.

The court shall order the publication of a summary of the judgement in one or more newspapers at the expense of the convicted person.

Republic of Sudan

The Copy Right and Neighboring Rights Protection and Literal and Artistic Works Act, 2013 serves as the legal framework for protecting intellectual property rights in Sudan. This law encompasses various types of rights, including copyrights, moral rights, and proprietary rights. In Sudan, the duration of copyright lasts for fifty years after the author’s death. To establish this law, the Sudanese government relied on the Berne Convention, the Paris Convention, and the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights.

Responses of the Survey participants did not mention any legal provisions regarding reproduction in Sudan, nor did they address any specific legal provisions concerning the rights of translators.

Regarding the penalties outlined by the Sudanese Law for violations of intellectual rights, Article 64 defines the crime of infringing copyrights or the neighboring rights as follows:

1. There shall be committed the offence of the infringement of copyright or neighboring rights or folklore expressions any person who commits knowingly any act that mentioned in section 62(1).
2. Every person who commits the offence of infringement of copyright or neighboring rights shall be punished with imprisonment or with fine, and in case of repetition shall be punished with both.
3. The person aggrieved by the infringement may claim financial compensation for the loss of gain or for the prejudice to reputation or rights.
4. For the purpose of sub-section (1) the person is deemed to have knowledge where he knows that he is infringing, or has reason to believe that, or il is possible for him to know if he takes the necessary care and caution.

According to Article 65 of the Act, which defines the contraventions and infringements dealt with according to the provisions of this Act, the court must take the following decisions:

• confiscate the sale’s revenue to the benefit of the aggrieved party;
• decide that the aggressor shall pay the aggrieved party, financial compensation for the loss of profits or the prejudice to his reputation or rights;
• order an injunction to stop the infringement;
• order upon an application of the aggrieved party to annihilate or destroy the imitative copies of the work, or copies that the infringement of, the copyright or neighboring rights committed thereon;
• order confiscation of the copies subject to the contravention, and Ille sets, instruments and materials used in committing the contravention, and deliver the same to the aggrieved party;
• the decision of the court shall be published in one or more of the daily newspapers at the expense of the defendant.

Article 66 of the Act specifies the penalties imposed on violators:

• Subject to the Provisions of Section 63, and without prejudice to any sever punishment provided for in any other taw, whoever contravenes the provisions of this Act, regulations, orders or rules made thereunder, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or with fine or with both.

In all case in which contravention is committed the court may order confiscation of exhibits the subject matter of the contravention to the interest of the Council.

Republic of Yemen

In 2012, the Yemeni government enacted Law No. 15, (Law of Protection of Copyrights and Neighboring rights) which regulates the legal framework for copyright and neighboring rights. This law encompasses both material and moral rights as outlined in the Geneva Convention, the Paris Convention, and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights. It addresses various types of rights, including copyrights, moral rights, and property rights. According to Yemeni law, the duration of copyrights is fifty years after the author’s death.

According to this law, the Yemeni government established an organization known as the General Administration for Copyright and Neighboring Rights. This administration was intended to issue regulations regarding reproduction and translators’ rights. However, these efforts were unsuccessful due to the ongoing conflict and war conditions in Yemen.

Law No. 15, in Chapter Three, outlines the precautionary measures, border measures, penalties, and compensations applicable in the event of violations of intellectual property rights in Yemen. Article 77 of Chapter Three states that, without prejudice to severer penalties stated in any other law, whoever commits any of the following violations shall be punished by a fine not exceeding (five-hundred thousand Rials) or imprisonment for a period not exceeding one months and in accordance to the severity of the violation.

• Violating any literal or financial right of the author or owner of neighboring rights stated in the law.
• Selling, renting, showing, importing, exporting, or circulating a protected work, audio record or radio program, according to the provisions of this law without prior written permission from the author or owner of the neighboring rights.
• Submitting false data or information with the objective of depositing.
• Counterfeiting work or phonogram, radio program published in the Republic or abroad with knowledge of the counterfeiting and selling it or offering to sell it or circulating it or renting it or exporting it outside the Republic.
• Violation of the provisions of Articles (57 and 58) of this law and distortion and deformation of folkloric expression.

Article 78 of the law outlines specific penalties for violations. The court may decide to double the imprisonment and fine in cases where the violations provided for in Article (77) of this Law are repeated. In all cases, the court, when issuing the conviction verdict, may order the enforcement of the following measures as complimentary penalties. Additionally, upon conviction, the court may enforce any of the following measures as supplementary penalties:

• Confiscation of infringing copies.
• Confiscation of tools and implements used in committing the infringement.
• Closure the publication house, store, institution or company which were used by the convict in committing the infringement for a period not exceeding six months. In case of repeated infringements, the closure will be permanent. In all cases the Court shall order the destruction of the counterfeited copies.
• Publication of the conviction verdict in a daily newspaper at the expense of the convict.

Chapter Four of the law outlines the compensations that the court allows infringers to claim. Article 79 states that, the court may, upon a request by the author or owner of neighboring rights, order an equitable compensation to be paid by the infringer against material and moral damages inflicted on the owner of these rights. The court may also order the infringer to pay judicial expenses and attorney’s fees.

Article 80: Anyone who violates any other provision of this Law shall be punished with a fine of not less than Fifty thousand Yemeni Rials.

Syrian Arab Republic

Legislative Decree No. 62 of 2013 was enacted in Syria to address copyright, intellectual property rights, and neighboring rights. This LD is closely aligned with the international agreements and conventions concerning the protection of intellectual property, including the Berne Convention, the Paris Convention, and the Geneva Convention.

Article 8 of Decree 62 outlines the financial rights of authors and the ways in which these rights can be transferred, either through inheritance or legal means. Additionally, it addresses the moral rights of authors, which are protected by Article 5 of the same decree. These moral rights include the authority to publish the work for the first time and the right to prevent any distortion or alteration of the work.

Article 6 of the decree outlines the financial investment rights of the author, which include the rights to copy and distribute their work. Additionally, Article 19 specifies that copyrights last for the life of the author plus an extra fifty years after their death.

Copyright and intellectual property rights are regulated by the Copyright and Neighboring Rights Protection Law, which was established by Legislative Decree No. 62 in 2013. This law covers a variety of literary, scientific, and artistic works, protecting both the moral and economic rights of authors and creators.

Key points of the copyright law in Syria:

– Copyright Protection: The Syrian copyright law automatically grants copyright protection to all literary, scientific, and artistic works without requiring any formalities. This protection applies regardless of the work’s value, its intended purpose, or whether it has been introduced in a physical form or not.

– Moral Rights: Authors enjoy moral rights, including the right to decide when and how their works are to be published for the first time. The right to attribute the works to themselves or to use a pseudonym. The right to reject any alterations or changes made to their works.

– Economic Rights: authors are granted the following economic rights: the right to reproduce their works using any medium; the right to translate the work; and the right to have their works distributed through sale or any other means.

Concerning the regulation of reproduction and the protection of intellectual rights, Article 6 of the Decree states that authors have the right reproduce their works in any means. Also, authors or their successor(s) who have received the transferred financial rights, enjoy the following exclusive financial rights:

• The right to reproduce the work by any means, including printing, photocopying, recording on tapes, discs, laser CDs, or computer memories, and digital storing on electronic or optical media or any other means.
• The right to have their works translated into other languages, quote from it, arrange it musically, or make any other modifications to it.
• The right to distribute the work or its physical copies to the public through sale or any other act of property transfer.
• The right to have their works publicly performed, including through playing, acting, singing, dancing, reciting, or narrating, to have their works implemented directly or through any device or means. A performance is deemed public if it takes place in a location that is accessible to individuals other than the author’s family or friends.
• The right to make their works available to the public through computers, the Internet, information networks, communications networks, or any other means.

As for the infringements, the Syrian law addresses infringements of intellectual property rights by imposing penalties on infringers. Section Two of Chapter Eight of LD No. 62 details these penalties of infringements.

Article 82 states that:

A. Whoever gets involved in any of the following activities shall be penalized by imprisonment from three months to two years and fined from one hundred thousand to one million Syrian pounds, or one of these penalties alone:

1. Anyone who with the intention of deceit places another person’s name on a literary, artistic, or scientific work, or directs someone else to do so.
2. Anyone who with the intention of deceiving and misleading a purchaser imitates and forges the signature of the author or the copyright holder, or uses any distinctive sign used by them.

B. Whoever gets involved in any of the following activities shall be penalized by imprisonment from one months to one year and fined from fifty thousand to three-hundred thousand Syrian pounds, or one of these penalties alone:

1. Anyone who unlawfully quotes or attributes to himself a part of a work, an audio or visual recording exceeding the accustomed limits.
2. Anyone who knowingly sells, places as deposit, offers for sale, or distributes a counterfeit work or a work falsely signed.

C. The penalties outlined in paragraphs (a) and (b) of this article shall be doubled in case of repetition. The presence of literary, artistic, or scientific works, or audiovisual recordings, or falsified works in the public domain shall not affect the penalties.

Article 83 of the law states that:

A. Anyone who knowingly infringes or attempts to infringe any copyright or a neighboring right for the purpose of making profit, shall be penalized by imprisonment from three months to two years and fined from one hundred thousand to one million Syrian pounds, or one of these penalties alone.

B. The penalties outlined in paragraph (A) of this article shall be doubled in case of repetition, without prejudice to provisions of Article 201 and the following articles of the General Penal Code.

C. The court may order the closure of the commercial establishment, broadcast station, website, or other premises used by the infringers or their accomplices to commit copyright infringement for a period ranging from one to three months. In case of repetition, the closure period shall be doubled.

D. All unauthorized copies of copyrighted works, along with any equipment and machinery used in their production shall be confiscated.

Kuwait

The Law No. 75/2019 addresses copyrights and neighboring rights. It protects the financial, literary and moral rights of authors, and the neighboring rights, such as copyrights and authors’ property rights.

The Law was enacted after the signature of several international conventions by Kuwait to become a full member of them. The major conventions include:

• the Arab Convention for the Protection of Copyright, 1989, by virtue of Law No. 16.
• the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) in 1994.
• the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Convention of 1998.
• in 2014, the Law No. 35 was enacted to approve Kuwait’s membership in the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works.

The Kuwaiti law states that the duration of protection of an author’s financial rights shall be for life and for fifty years after the author’s death, starting from the first of January of the year following their death.

As for reproduction and use of creative works, the Kuwaiti law regulates the reproduction and use of works; it states that authors, their successors and those with bequeathed exclusive right, shall be entitled to authorize or unauthorize any use or exploitation of their works in any manner, as follows:

1. Copying the work by any means, including printing, photocopying, recording on tapes, CDs, computer electronic memories, or digital storage in an electronic or optical environment or any other means.

2. Translating the work into another language, arranging it musically, or making any other modification or alteration to constitutes a derivative work.

3. Distributing the work or physical copies thereof to the public through sale or any other transfer of ownership. The exclusive right of distribution shall elapse upon the first sale of the original copy of the work, and the buyer of the original protected work shall be allowed to sell, cede or dispose of it without the permission of the right holder.

4. Public performance of the work.

5. Broadcasting, re-broadcasting or transferring the work to the public.

6. The exclusive right to lease shall not apply to computer software if they are not the primary place of leasing, nor to the leasing of audiovisual works where reproduction does not lead to financial harm to the owner of the exclusive right referred to.

7. Publishing in any way, including making it available through computers, communication networks and other means.

Although the Kuwaiti law does not specify any articles for translators and their rights, it recognizes that these rights are neighboring rights to which the law’s provisions apply.

The Kuwaiti law stipulates the penalties and fines applicable to infringing copyrights and the neighboring rights. It states that anyone who, without written permission from the author, the holder of the neighboring rights, or their successor(s), does any of the following things, shall be penalized by imprisonment for a period of six months to two years and fined from five hundred to fifty thousand dinars:

1. Infringing any of the literary or financial rights of the author or holder of the neighboring rights stipulated in this law, including making any work available to the public, or displaying any work, performance, sound recording or broadcasting program, which is covered by the protection provided for in this law through computers, information networks, communication networks or other methods or means.
2. Selling, leasing, or circulating by any form, a work, sound recording, broadcasting program that are protected in accordance with the provisions of this Law.

Article 44 of the Law states that: Without prejudice to any severer penalty stipulated for in another law, any person who commits any of the following acts shall be penalized by imprisonment for a period not less than six months and not more than two years and a fine of not less than one thousand dinars and not more than one hundred thousand dinars, or one of these two penalties:

1. Manufacturing, assembling, importing or exporting for the purpose of selling, leasing, trading or distributing any apparatus, means or instrument specifically designed or prepared to circumvent the technological protection measures used by the author or the neighboring right holder.

2. Penetrating unjustifiably the technological protection measures used by the author or the neighboring right holder to protect the rights provided for in this law or to preserve the quality and purity of the copies of works

3. Removing, deactivating or defecting unjustifiably any technical protection or electronic information aimed at organizing and managing the information necessary to administer the rights prescribed in this law.

4. Deleting or altering unlawful any information introduced in an electronic form and is necessary for the administration of the rights provided for in this Law.

5. Distributing or importing for the purposes of distribution, broadcasting, transmitting or making available to the public, works or subjects of neighboring rights, or copies thereof, knowing that information has unjustifiably been deleted from or altered in the electronic form though necessary to administer the rights prescribed in this law.

6. Storing or downloading any copy of computer software, applications or databases without authorization from the author or the neighboring right holder or their successors.

Lebanese Republic

Lebanon is one of the first Arab countries to legally regulate copyrights and the neighboring rights. In 1999, the Lebanese government enacted Law No. 75 concerning the protection of literary and artistic property, following Lebanon’s joining and ratification of the Berne Convention and the Paris Convention.

The law encompasses both financial and moral rights of the author, and specifies the duration of intellectual property rights as fifty years following the author’s death.

The Lebanese law has overlooked the rights of translators. There are no specific laws that address the rights of translators concerning books, nor are there any established institutions or associations to support them. They are only briefly referred to in Article 3 of the Intellectual Property Protection Law. “The following derivative works shall be subject to the provisions of this Law and shall be protected as original works without prejudice to the rights in the original work: translations, adaptations, transformations and arrangements of music;”.

Regarding the rights of reproduction and usage, Article 15 states the following: The copyright holder shall have the exclusive right to exploit the work commercially and, accordingly, shall have the right to authorize or prohibit the following: any copying, printing, recording and reproduction of the work in any manner or form including photography, cinematography, sound or visual recordings of any kind or any other form.

The Lebanese law outlines the types of infringes of intellectual property rights and the penalties imposed on those who infringe these rights. Article 84 stipulates that Any person who infringes copyright or a related right shall be required to pay fair compensation to the right holder for the material or moral injury and damage incurred. The amount of such compensation shall be determined by the court based on the commercial value of the work, the damage and lost profit incurred by the right holder and the material profit realized by the infringer. The court may order the seizure of the subject matter in dispute and the equipment and devices used to commit the infringement.

Article 85 states that, irrespective of whether the work has fallen into the public domain or not, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term varying from one month to three years and/or to a fine varying from LBP 5 to 50 million, any person who:

• fraudulently puts or instructs another person to put a false name on a literary or artistic work;
• fraudulently imitates the signature or the logo of the author with intent to mislead the buyer;
• knowingly imitates a literary or artistic work;
• knowingly sells, possesses, offers for sale or makes available an imitated or a plagiarized work. The sanction shall be doubled in the event of a repetition of the offence.

Article 86 explains the applicable penalties as follows:

Any person who, knowingly and with intent to make a profit, infringes or attempts to infringe copyright or neighboring rights provided for in this Law shall be liable to imprisonment for a term varying from one month to three years and/or to a fine varying from LBP 5 to 50 million. The sanction shall be doubled in the event of a repetition of the offence.

The competent court may order the closure of the premises, the commercial establishment or the radio or television station that infringes copyright for a period varying from one week to one month and the destruction of all unauthorized copies and all the equipment and the devices used to produce such copies. The court may also order that its decision be published in two local newspapers at the expense of the defendant.

Kingdom of Morocco

The Moroccan government has enacted several laws to regulate and protect intellectual property rights. This began with Law No. 2/2000 on Copyrights and the Neighboring rights.

Additionally, the Law No. 19-66/2022 was enacted as a complement of Law No. 2 on Copyright and the Neighboring Rights. Furthermore, the government enacted the Law No. 19-25/2022, establishing the Moroccan Office for Copyright and the Neighboring rights.

Morocco has joined various international agreements and conventions that govern intellectual property rights globally, Mainly:

• The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, administered by WIPO, was signed by Morocco in 1917.
• Ratification of the Paris Convention of 1971 as part of the Universal Copyright Convention administered by UNESCO.
• The Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, Geneva, 1967.

Moroccan laws safeguard authors’ financial rights during their lifetime and for fifty years after their death. Moral rights are recognized as imprescriptible, unlimited in duration, and irrevocable.

Moroccan laws do not include specific regulations for translators, but their rights are protected under copyright laws.

The law authorizes the competent court to consider civil cases in accordance with the requirements of this law, through:

A – make a judgment prohibiting the commission or ordering the cessation of the violation of any right protected under this Law.

B – order the seizure of the copies of works or of the sound recordings suspected of having been made or imported, or being exported, without the authorization of the owner of the right protected under this Law, as well as of the packaging of these copies, the instruments that may have been used to produce them, and the documents, accounts or business papers relating to these copies.

Moroccan laws outline the procedures that the competent court should follow when addressing a breach or infringement of rights. If a party is found to be infringing these rights, the court has the authority to require them to pay compensation as deemed appropriate.

In the event of infringing a recognized right under this law, and if there are copies resulting from such infringement, the right holder shall have the right to request from the court to order the destruction or disposal of those copies in any reasonable way, outside the commercial channels in such a manner as to avoid harm to the right holder.

If there is a risk that equipment may be used to commit or continue committing acts of infringement, the judicial authorities shall, within reasonable limits, order the destruction or disposal of such equipment outside of commercial channels, with a view to minimizing the risk of further infringements, or to order that the equipment be delivered to the rights holder.

Republic of Tunisia

Tunisia was the first Arab country to enact a law protecting intellectual property rights with the introduction of Law No. 36/1994 on Literary and Artistic Property. This law provides protection for all forms of intellectual property, covering both financial and moral rights. The duration of protection of financial rights is fifty years after the author’s death. In contrast, moral rights do not lapse by time and remain exclusively held by authors even after their passing.

Tunisia has ratified several international agreements and conventions that protect and regulate intellectual property rights, including the Berne Convention, the Paris Convention, the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights, and the Florence Agreement.

In 2013, the Tunisian government established the Tunisian Body of Copyright and the Neighboring Rights, which is responsible for the following:

• Protecting copyrights and the neighboring rights;
• Defending the financial and moral interests of rights holders;
• Collecting and distributing the proceeds arising from the collective disposal of authors’ rights and holders of the neighboring rights for their own benefit or that of their beneficiaries;
• Delivering the permits relating to the transfer of works in any physical form, including audio and audiovisual recordings;
• Regulating the financial and material conditions for the exploitation of works;
• Managing all the rights whose proceeds are allocated to the Social and Cultural Fund;
• Communicating —in coordination with the relevant entities— with the foreign institutions concerned with copyrights and the neighboring rights, particularly to preserve the rights and privileges gained by authors and holders of the neighboring rights at those institutions.
• Concluding mutual representation agreements with those foreign institutions;
• Receive works by way of permission or deposit;
• Determining the percentages and entitlement of authors and holders of neighboring rights;
• Litigating before the courts;
• Taking all measures and performing all actions that aim at achieving its purposes in the best possible way;
• Working to consolidate the culture of copyrights and neighboring rights in Tunisia; and
• Sensitizing the various stakeholders, particularly authors, copyright users, and the administrations responsible for proper implementation of legislation.

The Tunisian law does not specify any articles to translators’ rights, but it contains only one sub-clause in Chapter Six, which states that owners of translations, adaptations, modifications, or transformations of literary, scientific, or artistic works are entitled to the protections provided for in this law, as long as they do not infringe upon the rights of the original authors.

The Tunisian law clearly defines the infringements of intellectual property rights, how to deal with them, and the penalties for such infringements. Law No. 36, in the Chapter of the Procedures and Penalties, states in Article 50: It shall be prohibited to import onto the territory of the Tunisian Republic copies of a work that constitute an infringement of copyright within the meaning of this Law and of the international copyright conventions.

Article 51: Any person who infringes recognized copyright in any protected work as set out in Article 2 of this Law shall be required to pay to the owner of such right damages of which the amount shall be determined by the competent court.

Infringement of copyright shall be deemed proven where the user of the work is unable to furnish the authorization referred to in Article 2 of this Law. In the event of a repeated offense, the fine may be increased to 10,000 dinars, to which may be added a term of imprisonment of between one and six months or one only of these two penalties.

Article 53, The owner of an establishment that is open to the public in which an infringement of the provisions of this Law has been committed, either by showing to the public protected works or by the sale or rental of copies, shall be deemed jointly liable for making good the material and moral prejudice caused by the exploitation of those works in the event of it being proved that the owner of the establishment concerned acted knowingly.

Article 54, Ascertainment of infringements of this Law and the drafting of reports shall be entrusted to the judicial police authorities and to agents authorized by the Minister responsible for culture from among the category (A) agents of the MoC and who shall be sworn for that purpose.

Article 55, The competent court may order ex officio or at the request of an author or of the Tunisian Copyright Protection Agency, the confiscation or destruction of copies or the temporary or definitive closure of the establishment in which the infringement has been ascertained.

Intellectual Property Law No. 36 of 1994 is regarded as a foundational legal framework in Tunisia. This law has been reinforced by several key regulations, including Article 41 of the 2022 Constitution, Decree 115/2011, and Decree 54/2022, which specifies Article 25 of Decree 54 to address the protection of intellectual property on social media networks.

Sultanate of Oman

In 2008, the Omani government enacted its Law of Copyrights and Neighboring Rights, known as Law No. 65. This law outlines the financial and moral rights that are protected, granting their holders exclusive rights to manage, benefit from, and utilize these rights.

Oman joined the Berne Convention in 1998. In the same year, the Omani government also joined the Paris Convention. Subsequently, in 1999, Oman ratified the agreement that established the WIPO, known as the Geneva Convention.

The Law did not specify provisions for translators and their rights; instead, it referred to them in Chapter Six as holders of the neighboring rights.

The Omani law has not regulated the reproduction and use of creative works. It grants authors, their general successor(s), and any legatee(s) the exclusive right to authorize or prohibit any use or exploitation of their works in any way, according to the following:

• Copying the work by any means, including printing, photocopying, recording on tapes, discs, laser CDs, or electronic memory of a computer, or storing it digitally in an electronic or optical medium, or any other means.
• Translation of his work into another language, quoting it, musical composition, or modification in another form.
• The disposition of the original or a copy of his work to the public through sale or other transfer of ownership.
• Public performance of his work.
• Broadcasting of his work, or communicating the work to the public.
• Rental of the original or a copy of his work embodied in sound recording, or of his cinematic work, or his work which is computer program, for commercial purposes.

As for infringements of intellectual property rights, the Omani law defines the nature of infringements and penalties in Articles 49-56, which stipulate:

Without prejudices to any severer sanctions provided under any other Law, any person, who commits any of the following, shall be penalized by imprisonment from three months, minimum, up to two years, maximum, and a fine ranging from two thousand Riyal, minimum, up to ten thousand Riyal, maximum, or by either one:

1. Intentionally violates the commercial range of one of the author’s rights or neighboring rights under the provisions of this Law, this will include the following: A.Violation even without meaning to, directly or indirectly realizing financial gains. B. Violation for the purpose of realizing commercial benefits or achieving private financial gains.
2. Commits any of the prohibited actions under the provisions in this Law with the purpose of realizing commercial profits or private financial gain, whether he is knowing or having reasonable grounds to know that the act may enable, facilitate or hide a violation occurred on the protected right under the provisions of this Law.
3. Knowingly circulates forged labels which designed to be affixed to a sound recording, a copy of a computer program, documentation or packaging for a computer program, a copy of a movie or another audio-visual work.
4. Knowingly circulates forged documents or forged packaging for a computer program.
5. Knowingly import or export infringing goods.
6. Commits any of the prohibited actions prescribed in Paragraphs (4 and 5) of Article (40) of this Law.
7. Intentionally violates the financial right of a protected work under the provisions of this Law by its publication abroad, or offering it for further distribution, or export.

In all cases, the punishment, both in its minimum and/or maximum limits, shall be doubled in case of repetition, together with closure of the commercial establishment where the offense was committed, or banning of the activity, subject to the Court considerations.

State of Palestine

The authorities of the State of Palestine have not enacted any law on the protection of authors’ intellectual property rights; therefore, there is no legal reference available in this report.

Conclusion

As we approach the end of our research on “Public Book Policies in the Arab World,” we can state that the publishing industry in this region faces numerous challenges, from legal restrictions to lack of government support to the issues of intellectual property rights. However, there are also opportunities to enhance this sector through new strategies that, if effectively utilized, could significantly contribute to its development.

The study shows that many Arab countries still rely on traditional and outdated laws to regulate publishing, laws that do not keep up with the rapid technological developments witnessed by the world today. Furthermore, the restrictions on freedom of expression and administrative pre-censorship or judicial post-publication censorship continue to play a significant role in limiting the free dissemination of ideas and information. Furthermore, independent publishers face significant difficulties to survive and compete in the market due to the dominance of a small number of major or subsidized publishers.

On the other hand, some Arab countries have made significant progress in improving their publishing sectors by promoting the translation movement and offering government support for certain cultural projects. However, these efforts are still limited and insufficient to bring about a real breakthrough in the publishing industry, and they lack a comprehensive strategic plan.

Based on the experiences of the Arab countries reviewed, we can say that the Arab publishing sector urgently requires the adoption of advanced and comprehensive public policies. These policies should focus on creating a competitive and equitable working environment for publishers while addressing and reducing censorship restrictions that limit freedom of expression and creativity. This approach aims to foster an intellectual movement that aligns with societal aspirations and adapts to significant changes at all levels. Additionally, modern laws should be enacted to protect intellectual property rights and to promote translation and digital publishing.

It is crucial for Arab countries to support independent publishers by allowing them to take part in shaping the public policies relating to books and publishing. Additionally, it is important to strengthen dialogue among governments, the private sector, and civil society to ensure that cultural policies are developed in a way that meets the needs of all stakeholders in the sector.

It is also essential for unions, associations, and civil society organizations to collaborate with increased determination, effective methodology, professional responsibility, and independence.

Final Recommendations

1. Updating publishing laws: Arab countries need to update their publishing laws to align with the global technological and digital advancements. This includes creating new regulations for e-publishing and digital copyright protection.
2. Combating piracy and counterfeiting: Piracy presents a major challenge for publishers in the Arab world. To foster progress, growth, and stability within the publishing industry, it is essential to implement legal mechanisms, enforce controls against infringements of intellectual property rights, and raise awareness about these rights.
3. Promoting freedom of expression: The publishing industry cannot prosper under tightened censorship restraints. Laws regarding freedom of expression and publishing must be revised to guarantee unrestricted access to cultural and scientific content.
4. Supporting independent publishers: To effectively combat monopolies and unfair competition, it is essential to implement mechanisms that provide financial and logistic support to independent publishers. This can be achieved through tax exemptions or government funding programs aimed at enhancing their sustainability. Professional associations and organizations should develop action plans that align with local and Arab strategies, promoting the prosperity of the publishing profession and emphasizing its positive impact on society.
5. Encouraging translation and digital publishing: Arab countries need to enhance investment in translation and digital publishing as a means to open new markets and improve book distribution.
6. Developing national and Pan-Arab strategies and mechanisms for effective and sustainable education of publishing and book professions.
7. Enhancing public-private dialogue: developing the publishing sector requires continuous collaboration among the government, private sector, and professional associations to set out policies that benefit all and improve the quality of published content.
8. Fostering coordination among Arab countries to develop and protect the publishing industry.

In conclusion, developing the publishing policies in the Arab world is a dire necessity to foster the growth of this essential sector, which plays a significant role in the dissemination of knowledge and enhancement of culture within Arab societies. Therefore, it is important for all stakeholders to collaborate in order to achieve this goal.